Главная » Реферат » Реферат по английскому языку на тему россия

Реферат: Праздники России ( на английском). Реферат по английскому языку на тему россия


"Суеверия в России и Британии"

Реферат по курсу английского языка

на тему British and Russian Superstitions

Contents

  1. Introduction 2

  2. British and Russian omens and superstitions

  1. The definitions of “omen” and “superstition” 3

  2. Superstitions in England 5

  3. Superstitions in Russia 7

  4. Similarities and differences between British and Russian superstitions 9-11

  1. Conclusion 12

  2. The list of literature 13

Introduction

The importance of the research is demonstrated clearly by predictable code of conduct. To begin with, despite all the modernization that has taken place, superstitions still exist in our society. Omens and superstitions play a very important role in society and it cannot be denied.

The aim of our work is to investigate the most common superstitions in Britain and in Russia and to prove that in the age of advanced technology and science people don`t believe in superstitions as they used to.

The relevance of research:

1. The theme is of great interest.

2. Education plays a very important role in modern society and extra knowledge about culture of some countries will be very useful.

3. Comparison of customs and superstitions helps to understand the cultures of these countries better.

The object of study: the most well-known and commonly used signs and superstitions in the UK and Russia

The tasks of the study:

1. To study the literature on the subject.

2. To find out the origins of superstitions and their causes.

3. Create a list of common signs and superstitions.

4. Consider, compare and analyze superstition in two cultures - English and Russian.

British and Russian omens and superstitions

  1. The definitions of “omen” and “superstition”

The question whether we should trust omens and superstitions or not worries many people. The definitions of «omen» and «superstition» will help to approach to the truth.

Omen \ō-mən\:

  1. Something that is believed to be a sign or warning of something that will happen in the future. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

  2. An event or phenomenon regarded as a portent of good or evil; a prophetic sign, an augury. (Oxford English Dictionary)

  3. Something that is considered to be a sign of how a future event will take place.

(Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)

Superstition \ˌsü-pər-ˈsti-shən\:

  1. A belief that certain events or things will bring good or bad luck. (Merriam-Webster Dictionary)

  2. Excessively credulous belief in and reverence for the supernatural. (Oxford English Dictionary)

  3. Belief that is not based on human reason or scientific knowledge, but is connected with old ideas about magic, etc. (Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)

History of omens and superstitions counts thousands of years and began in ancient times. People wanted to protect themselves and their families from different troubles and misfortunes at all times. They observed phenomena occurring around, looked for regularities and made conclusions. Thus, there are bad and good omens, there are various customs and rituals that help against unpleasant events. The most reliable omens are omens about the weather, animals, birds and harvests.

Superstition may have different origins, but all of them generated by fear of the unknown. Ancient people tried to explain the strange phenomenon for them with the help of signs and superstitions.

 

Superstitions of England

  1. “If you walk under a ladder, you will have bad luck”. The passage under the stairs, leaning against the wall, in the UK is considered to be unfavorable. This can be explained by the fact that the staircase, which stands on the ground and leans against the wall forms a triangle - integral and indivisible character, and even the personification of the Holy Trinity, and go in this triangle is to break the balance, harmony.

  2. “You should not step on shadow”. In ancient times it was believed that the shadow is the soul of man, and the attack on the soul is not good.

  3. In England it is not accepted to wish good luck to the other person, because in ancient beliefs evil spirits may wish to overhear it and tweak something wrong. Therefore, instead of good wishes to the spirits to cheat, they say the phrase quite the opposite: “Break a leg!”

  4. “If you marry in Lent, you will live to repent” - English say that marrying during Lent - not good that the couple will always quarrel regret the marriage, and there will be happiness for their families. This is due to the biblical tradition, because marrying during Lent - a great sin.

  5. If the wedding day the bride sees a spider on her wedding dress - it's a big success in the joint life partners.

  6. Wednesday is considered to be the best day in England for his marriage in all respects Monday will bring a wealth of the bride and groom, and Tuesday - health. Saturday is considered the most unfortunate "wedding" day of the week.

  7. The bride on the wedding day should be something old, something new, something borrowed, something blue. Also the bride has to put a sixpence under the left heel. New - the symbol of the beginning of a new life and new hopes. To wear something new is easy. This is almost every element of the wedding dress. Borrowed - to borrow a thing can only be the woman who has been living in a happy marriage. So happiness and will go to the young family. Old - worn thing symbolizes a strong relationship with the family of the bride. The role of "old" things can fulfill the shoes that you blasphemed a couple of days before the wedding. Blue - if this colour in your image is not provided, then the role of the blue things can successfully fulfill the garter.

  8. “Don’t open an umbrella indoors”. There are two possible origins of this superstition. Some people believe that it originated in Egyptian times when umbrellas were used to protect people from the heat of the sun. To open an umbrella indoors was an insult to the God of the Sun. Other people believe that this superstition started in 18th century London when waterproof umbrellas with large metal spokes began to be used. The umbrellas were very large and difficult to open so often caused an injury to someone or an object to be broken if opened in the house.

Superstitions of Russia

  1. “Do not carry an empty bucket”. If you see someone with any empty container—bucket or a cart—it is considered a bad omen. Russians believe that if you meet a woman carrying an empty bucket, you won’t have a good day.

  2. “Don’t put money into someone’s hands”. Russians have a lot of “money” omens. For example, a taxi driver or shop assistant might decline when you try to hand them your money, and ask you to put it on the vehicle’s dashboard or in a special tray next to the till. This does not mean at all that they cannot stomach touching your hands. It is believed that the money can transmit energy from its owner, including negative energy.

  3. “Don’t take anything out of the house at night”. If you live under the same roof as Russians, you would be advised not to try to take out the trash at night. It is believed that this can bring ruin on the house.

  4. “Never give knives, clocks or scarves as a present”. These things are not considered the best present for a Russian. Scarves, for example, are an omen of tears, knives an omen of enemies, and clocks an omen of parting. If you do nevertheless give somebody one of these things, do not be surprised if they give you a small coin in return. This is to create the illusion of buying the item.

  5. “Look at yourself in a mirror if you have had to go back”. For Russians, going back to the house is an omen of bad luck. So if a Russian discovers after leaving the house that he has forgotten something, he will go back and will make a point of looking himself in the eye in a mirror. This is another trick of the trade to deceive an evil omen.

  6. “Never give unmarried girls a corner seat”. In ancient Rus if a girl sits at the corner of the table she will not marry for seven years. It is true that if modern girls nevertheless like a corner seat and someone mentions this omen, they will cleverly reply, “My husband will have a corner,” in other words, they will have a home, but regardless, most Russians try not to put girls in corner seats and avoid them themselves.

  7. “Sit before a journey”. When a member of the family is getting ready for a long journey, everyone in the house has to sit down before they set off. This is a Russian omen for a safe journey. Everyone in the house has to sit somewhere for a minute. This omen, incidentally, is very useful, because it helps people to calm down after the chaos and remember whether they have forgotten to pack anything.

Similarities between Russian and English superstitions

Despite the fact that Russian culture is very diverse to English culture and the countries have passed different historical paths, many omens and superstitions match.

  1. “Knock on wood”. You must knock on wood 3 times after mentioning good fortune or the evil spirits will ruin things for you. The British version is "touch wood". The tradition traces back to an ancient belief that spirits lived in trees, especially Oaks, and that by knocking on or touching the wood, you were paying a small tribute to them and could call on them for protection against ill-fortune.

  2. If a girl catches the bride’s bouquet after a wedding, she will be next to marry.

  3. “Sprinkled salt is to quarrel”. In ancient times salt was very expensive and was used instead of money. That’s why if a person spills salt he will lose his money. Spilled salt leads to a quarrel.

  4. “Number 13”. There is no 13th floor or 13th room number (the 14th follows after the 12th) in many hotels and houses. And many people will not invite 13 guests to their party. So, let us think why “13” is so often mentioned in Russian, English and even world superstitions as an unlucky number.

There are several reasons why number 13 is unfortunate:

Friday is the unluckiest day for Christian countries like the UK and Russia. This is because Christ was crucified on Friday, 13th. Superstitious people consider the 13th of Friday to be an absolutely unlucky day.

  1. “Mirrors”. Mirror is one of the most mysterious objects in our houses. “If you break a mirror, you will have 7 years of unhappy life”. This superstition is explained by several reasons:

  1. “The Horseshoe brings good luck”. Almost every country has its own legend or tradition relating to the Horseshoe. Irish said that the horse was in a stable where Christ was born, so the Horseshoe has a magic power. In Russia the blacksmiths were considered the magicians and it is said that they used a horseshoe to show their magic.

Differences between British and Russian omens and superstitions

But, as we know, there are many differences between British and Russian superstitions. Perhaps, one of the most important differences is the interpretation of omens.

  1. “Black cat”. During the Middle Ages, black cats were seen as evil demons. People believed that witches had the power to turn themselves into black cats, so if one crossed your path, chances were good that a witch had her eye on you. Moreover, a black cat would block your connection to God and the entrance to the heavens. Many black cats were destroyed and anyone who kept them was also killed at that time. Black cats are still considered to be bad luck throughout most of Europe (including Russia), India and the US. But not all countries think of black cats as a bad luck. In Great Britain, Ireland, Japan, Australia and New Zealand black cats are good signs. In England, a black cat crossing your path is a great fortune. That is why so many famous people in Great Britain choose a black cat as a home pet.

  2. “Left hand itches”. There is a superstition in England that if your left hand itches, you will lose money. In Russia, it is believed that when the left hand itches, it, on the contrary, promises great wealth. Most likely, money will come unexpectedly - debt will be returned or you may receive an award. Moreover, the more intensively your hand scratches, the more money will come. The palm must be scratched from the periphery to the center, as if collecting the money in one pile.

Conclusion

Now we can say that every country and every nation has its own superstitions, numerous good and bad luck signs. At the same time, some rituals are identical in different countries, although sometimes they have different meaning.

Some people refuse to believe in such things unless there is a scientific reasoning behind it. But still the majority of educated, intelligent people hold on to a variety of superstitions even nowadays, despite of all modern scientific achievements and discoveries. We believe that we can control our destiny and lives by performing little and sometimes silly or just funny tricks. We will do all sorts of strange things to protect ourselves from bad luck and to improve our future.

The list of used sources:

https://ru.wiktionary.org/wiki/superstition

https://targetstudy.com/articles/students-and-superstitions

http://www.airport-world.com/news/general-news/5413-revealed-the-top-10-flying-superstitions-of-the-british-airline-passenger

http://nw-english.com/articles/anglijskie-sueverija

http://thebester.ru/blog/poznavatelno/14170.html

http://www.aerotranslate.com/russian-culture/superstitions-and-rituals-of-russian-students.html

infourok.ru

Реферат - О городах России на английском языке

О городах России на английском языке.

То, что представлено ниже не является топиками в полном смыле этого слова. Тем не менее на основе данной информации очень легко сделать полноценный топик. А, может быть, ее даже и не потребуется обрабатывать - некоторые тексты очень хороши.

Arkhangelsk, also Archangel, city, northern European Russia, capital of Arkhangelsk Oblast, on the Northern Dvina (Severnaya Dvina) River, near the White Sea (Beloye More). It is a major seaport, although icebound in winter months. The city is also a trade and processing center for an important timber-producing region. A maritime school, a forestry institute, and a regional museum are located here.

Arkhangelsk was the chief Russian seaport from its founding (1584) as Novo-Kholmogory until the building of the Baltic port of Saint Petersburg in 1703. It received its present name in 1613. The city declined in the 18th century, but trade revived at the end of the 19th century, when a railroad to Moscow was completed. During World Wars I and II Arkhangelsk was a major port of entry for Allied aid. The city resisted Bolshevik rule during 1918-20 and was a stronghold of the White Army, supported by Allied forces.

Blagoveshchensk, city in far eastern Russia and capital of Amur Oblast. Located at the confluence of the Amur and Zeya rivers, Blagoveshchensk lies on the border of Russia and China. Its river port promoted the development of the shipbuilding and ship repair industries. Its proximity to deposits of important natural resources stimulated the growth of the production of equipment for the coal and gold mining industries. Other firms produce electrical equipment, paper, furniture, clothes, alcoholic beverages, and meat products. Dairy and milling are also important aspects of the economy. Blagoveshchensk serves an important transportation role in the regional economy; in addition to its river port, the city is the final station on a railroad spur from the Trans-Siberian Railway. The city has numerous educational institutions, including schools of agriculture, teaching, and medicine. The city also has theaters for drama and puppetry and a museum of regional history. Blagoveshchensk was founded in 1856 as a military outpost at the mouth of the Zeya River. The city was constructed with wide, tree-lined streets; recent urban development has emphasized zones with large apartment complexes outside of the city center.

Irkutsk, city, southern Siberian Russia, capital of Irkutsk Oblast, at the confluence of the Irkut and Angara rivers. It is a major industrial and commercial center served by the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Manufactures include aircraft, motor vehicles, textiles, building materials, mining equipment, and leather goods. A large hydroelectric facility is here. A regional cultural center, the city has history and art museums, theaters, a symphony orchestra, and several institutions of higher learning, including a university.

Irkutsk was founded in 1652 as a cossack outpost and developed as a fur- and gold-trading center on the route to Mongolia and China; it was also used by the Russian government as a place of exile. Industrialization accelerated after the coming of the Trans-Siberian Railroad in 1898.

Kaliningrad, formerly Kцnigsberg, city, western Russia, on the Pregolya River. The capital of Kaliningrad Oblast, it is a major industrial and commercial center, connected by channel with Baltiysk, an ice-free port on the Baltic Sea. Among its principal manufactures are ships, machinery, chemicals, paper, and lumber. Historic landmarks in Kaliningrad include the Schloss, or Castle (1255), and a cathedral (14th century). The German philosopher Immanuel Kant, a native of the city, taught at its university (now Kaliningrad State University), which was established in 1544.

The city, founded in 1255 as a fortress by the Teutonic Knights, became a member of the Hanseatic League in 1340. From 1457 to 1525 it was the official seat of the grand master of the Teutonic Knights, and from 1525 to (1618) it was the residence of the dukes of Prussia. Frederick I was crowned as the first king of Prussia in the chapel of the Schloss in 1701. During World War I (1914-18) the city was the scene of heavy fighting between the Germans and the Russians. Following the war it was made the capital of the German province of East Prussia. The city was severely damaged in World War II (1945-45), and in 1945, after a two-month siege, it was occupied by Soviet troops. By agreement among the Allies at the Potsdam Conference (1945) the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) annexed the city and surrounding territory. In 1946 the city's name was changed from Kцnigsberg to Kaliningrad, in honor of the Soviet leader M. I. Kalinin.

Kazan, city in central European Russia, capital of the republic of Tatarstan, and a port at the confluence of the Volga and Kazanka rivers. Kazan is a major industrial, commercial, and cultural center. Manufactured products include machinery, refined petroleum, chemicals, building materials, processed food, footwear, soap, and textiles. Once a prominent Muslim city, Kazan remains a center of Tatar culture (see Tatars). It is the site of Kazan State University (founded in 1804), where Leo Tolstoy and Vladimir Ilich Lenin studied, and several technical schools. Notable structures include the kremlin (citadel), the oldest part of which dates from the 15th century; a 16th-century church; and two 18th-century mosques.

Kazan was founded in the late 14th century and soon became the capital of a powerful Tatar khanate. In 1552 the city was annexed by Russia under Ivan IV Vasilyevich. It was largely destroyed in 1774 during a revolt by troops under the leadership of the cossack soldier Yemelyan Pugachov, but was rebuilt soon thereafter, during the reign of Catherine the Great.

Murmansk, city, northwestern Russia, the largest city in the world north of the Arctic Circle. Situated on Kola Inlet, an arm of the Barents Sea, the city is an important port with an ice-free harbor. It is the capital of Murmansk Oblast. Murmansk is a Russian naval base and has major shipbuilding and fish-processing facilities. It is the seat of institutes of oceanography and polar research.

Murmansk was founded in 1915, during World War I, as a port of entry for Allied supplies after Russian ports on the Black and Baltic seas had been closed. In 1916 it was linked by rail with Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg). After the Russian Revolution, an Allied force briefly occupied Murmansk, and it was an Allied port of entry in World War II (1939-45).

Nizhnevartovsk, city in northeastern Russia, in western Siberia. Nizhnevartovsk is part of Khantia-Mansia, an autonomous okrug within Tyumen Oblast, and is located along the Ob River. The city grew in economic importance in the 1970s as a service center for the local oil industry. The Samotlar oil basin, an important source of oil, is located in the region, and oil and natural gas pipelines cross the city. Additional industry in the city includes timber, construction materials, and food. Transportation to the city is limited, although there is a railroad station. There is a regional history museum in Nizhnevartovsk.

During the time of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Soviet central planners concentrated resources in several cities, including Nizhnevartovsk and Surgut, to promote the growth of the Siberian oil industry. The labor intensive nature of oil production during the Soviet period spurred dramatic population growth in the city. In 1970, prior to the birth of the industry, the population of the city was only 16,000. By the end of the decade the city had grown to 109,000, and by the end of the 1980s the city had again more than doubled, to 242,000. By 1979 the city had grown to more than three times the size Soviet planners had expected, causing serious housing and infrastructure shortages. The population of the city is currently declining, most likely due to economic difficulties in the oil industry.

Nizhniy Novgorod, city in western Russia, at the confluence of the Oka and Volga rivers. Nizhniy Novgorod is a major river port, railroad hub, and industrial center. The city is the site of one of the largest automobile factories in Russia, and its manufactures also include aircraft, textiles, and railroad and electric equipment. Nizhniy Novgorod has libraries, museums, a large university, and several technical schools. Historical structures include a stone kremlin (citadel) built in the 13th century, two 13th-century churches, and a 17th-century palace. Nizhniy Novgorod was founded in 1221. In the late 14th century the city was plundered by the Tatars before being annexed by Moscow in 1392. Important for its trade with Asia, the city became famous for its trade fairs, held annually from 1817 until 1917. From 1932 to 1991 it was named Gorkiy (also spelled Gorky or Gorki) in honor of the Russian writer Maksim Gorkiy, who was born in the city.

Novgorod, city, capital of Novgorod Oblast, western Russia, on the Volkhov River, near Lake Ilmen. It is the commercial center for a rich farm region, and industries here produce fertilizer, processed food, furniture, and china. Novgorod retains examples of early Russian architecture, including a kremlin (citadel) and the Cathedral of Saint Sophia (both 11th century).

One of the oldest cities in Russia, Novgorod was founded as early as the 5th or 6th century. Rurik, founder of the Russian monarchy, became prince of Novgorod in 862. In 1136 the city achieved independence from Kyyiv (Kiev) and, with a democratic form of government, became the capital of sovereign Great Novgorod. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Novgorod flourished as a trade outpost of the Hanseatic League and was a major cultural center. It repulsed Tatar invasions in the late 13th century. In 1478 the city was annexed by its rival, Moscow, under Ivan III. The city declined as a trading center after the establishment of nearby Saint Petersburg in 1703. During the German occupation (1941-44) of World War II, the city was severely damaged.

Rostov-na-Donu, also Rostov-on-Don, or Rostov, city, southwestern European Russia, capital of Rostov Oblast. Situated on a high bank of the Don River near its mouth on the Sea of Azov, the city is an important commercial, industrial, and transportation center. It is connected by a deepwater canal to the Sea of Azov, and by the Volga-Don Canal to the Caspian, Baltic, and White seas. The city is also linked by pipeline with the petroleum fields of the Caucasus region. Manufactures include ships, chemicals, agricultural machinery, electric equipment, and building materials. Several institutions of higher learning, including a university, are in Rostov-na-Donu.

In 1749 a customs office was established on the site of present-day Rostov-na-Donu. A fortress was built here in 1761, and in 1797 the settlement achieved city status. In the 19th century it grew as an important trading port. During World War II the city was held twice (1941, 1942-1943) by German forces and was damaged considerably.

Saransk, city in central European Russia, capital of the republic of Mordovia. Saransk is located along the Insar River in the Volga River basin, about 630 km (about 390 mi) east of Moscow. Industrial activity in Saransk includes the production of electrical cables, chemicals, decorative cloth, and food products; machine building, and metalworking. The city also has two thermal power stations. Saransk has had a train station since 1893, currently located on the Rusaevka-Kazan rail route, and is located along a highway. Saransk has many historic architectural sites stemming from its early settlement in 1641 as a fortress for the southeastern border of the Russian State. Soviet planners reconstructed the old city center in the 1960s and 1970s, adding wide streets and planning the construction of massive residential areas. Saransk has several theaters: a drama theater (founded in 1961), a puppet theater, and a comedy theater. It also has a regional history museum and a museum of painting. The Mordovian State University (founded in 1957) is located in Saransk as well as several technical schools.

Stavropol, city in southern European Russia, capital of Stavropol Territory (Kray), in an area known as Caucasia. Since the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1991, Stavropol has attracted many refugees from neighboring regions as a result of political and economic chaos and armed conflict near Russia's borders. The city's economy is concentrated on heavy industry; it has factories that produce automobiles, cranes, furniture, and reinforced concrete. Light industry is also represented with the production of shoes and dairy products. Stavropol has air, rail (the Kavkazskaya-Divnoe-Elista rail line), and highway connections to other major cities. It is also linked by bus routes within northern Caucasia. Buses provide important linkages because of the mountainous nature of the area. The city has technical-training institutes for medicine, education, art, and construction. The city was founded in 1777 as a fort for the Russian army. It was established as a city in 1785, and in 1822 became the center of the North Caucasus Territory. From 1935 to 1943 it was known as Voroshilovsk.

Syktyvkar, city in northern Russia, capital of Komi republic, Syktyvkar is located along the Sysola River near its confluence with the Vychegda River about 1200 km (about 744 mi) northeast of Moscow. Since the 1960s, the city's economy has focused on the timber industry and includes the production of cellulose, paper, and wood furniture. Additional industry includes the food industry (flour milling, meat, and dairy), light industry (leather shoes, textiles), and construction materials. Lying outside Russia's power network, Syktyvkar has a thermal power plant to serve its energy needs. Because of its extreme northerly location the city has few transportation links; it is, however, the final station on a rail spur from the city of Mikun. Syktyvkar University (founded in 1972) is located in the city and there are several training institutes for the cellulose industry and the fields of medicine, music, and education. The city has a drama theater and two museums. Syktyvkar was settled as Ust-Sysolsk in 1586 and was named Syktyvkar in 1930. Most likely due to its extreme northerly location and restructuring in the cellulose industry, the city is one of many in the far north that have lost population since the breakup of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Volgograd, formerly Stalingrad, city, capital of Volgograd Oblast, southwestern Russia, on the Volga River. Volgograd, an important industrial, commercial, and transshipment center of Russia, is a railroad hub and a major Volga River port. It is linked to the Don River by the Volga-Don Canal, constructed between 1950 and 1957. A large hydroelectric power dam is just north of the city. Among the main industries in Volgograd are petroleum refining, shipbuilding, and the manufacture of aluminum, chemicals, processed food, farm machinery, iron and steel, and forest products. The University of Volgograd (1980) is located in the city.

Volgograd was founded in 1589 as Tsaritsyn, a fortress on the southeastern frontier of Russia. It was taken by cossack rebels twice: in 1670 by Stenka Razin and in 1774 by Yemelyan Pugachov. With the expansion of the Russian Empire in the 19th century, Tsaritsyn became an important port for products shipped down the Volga River. Early in the Russian Revolution, in 1917, the city was taken by the Bolsheviks. During the civil war that followed it was occupied by White Russian troops for three months in 1919. In 1925 the city was renamed Stalingrad, for Joseph Stalin, who had been notable in the defense of the city against the White Russians.

During World War II, Stalingrad, a strategically located industrial center, was a vital German objective. A large German force mounted an assault on the city on August 20, 1942, after a period of heavy air raids. A successful Soviet counteroffensive began on November 19, and on February 2, 1943, the Sixth German Army surrendered, thus ending the German advance into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). German casualties alone totaled more than 300,000, and the Soviet city was almost completely destroyed. Reconstruction began immediately after the war. The city was renamed Volgograd in 1961.

Yaroslavl, industrial city, capital of Yaroslavl Oblast, central European Russia, port and railroad center on the Volga River. Manufactures include refined petroleum, motor vehicles, chemicals, synthetic rubber, machinery, processed food, and textiles. Points of interest in the city include a 13th-century church and monastery and three 17th-century churches containing noteworthy frescoes. Also noteworthy is Yaroslavl University (1971), which has faculties in the physical and social sciences.

According to tradition, Yaroslavl was founded in the early 11th century by Russian ruler Yaroslav the Wise of Kyyiv. From 1218 to 1463, when it was absorbed by Moscow, Yaroslavl was the seat of an independent principality. In the 16th and 17th centuries it was an important commercial city on the route between Moscow and Arkhangelsk. Commerce declined in the 18th century, and the city became known for the manufacture of textiles. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Yaroslavl was developed as a center of heavy industry.

Yekaterinburg, formerly Sverdlovsk, city, capital of Yekaterinburg Oblast, Russia, on the Iset River. Located on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains in a mineral-rich region, Yekaterinburg is a major industrial center and a station on the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Among the large industrial works located in the city are platinum refineries, copper and iron smelters, and factories producing electrical equipment, chemicals, and heavy machinery. Yekaterinburg's educational institutes include the Urals A. M. Gorkiy State University (1920) and the Yekaterinburg State Medical Institute (1931).

The city was founded in 1721 by Czar Peter I as an ironworking center and was named Yekaterinburg for his wife, who was later proclaimed Empress Catherine I. Industrial development was spurred by the construction of the Great Siberian Highway in the late 18th century and the Trans-Siberian Railroad in the late 19th century. Czar Nicholas II and his family were held captive in the city by the Bolsheviks after the Russian Revolution and were executed here in 1918. The city was renamed Sverdlovsk in 1924 in honor of Bolshevik and Soviet leader Yakov M. Sverdlov. During World War II (1939-1945) industry from threatened European areas of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was transferred here. Following the disintegration of the USSR at the end of 1991, the city's name was changed back to Yekaterinburg.

referat.store

Реферат - Праздники России ( на английском)

Holidays of Russia.     

Russian holidays it is the holidays of Russian people connected with widespread national traditions of their carrying out. For a long time already in Russia there was a set of remarkable holidays. People drove round dances, sang songs, and lived not boringly. Every day, what that — a holiday. But gradually traditions and holidays varied. In Russia there are also state holidays. As state eight national holidays, first of all, are called, are recognized non-working, holidays, namely: New Year of the first and on second of January and a Christmas on seventh of January. The international women's day on eighth of March, the Holiday of Spring and work of the first and on second of May, a Victory Day on ninth of May, Independence Day of Russia on twelfth of June, the Day of accord and reconciliation on seventh of November, the Constitution day of the Russian Federation on twelfth of December. For the state holidays, in Russia now, the combination of what remained from the previous historical periods, and new, come to a life finding by the country of the sovereignty and change of a political system is characteristic.

New Year

In Russia a great number of Russians, with hunting celebrating Christmas, prefer New Year. Winter holidays are tightened for some weeks: at first we mark the western Christmas, then New Year, then orthodox Christmas, and then old New Year. But nevertheless a favorite holiday in this long train of celebrations — New Year, mark in the night from December, 31st for January, 1st. It is the holiday most ancient and most favorite among Russians. />

The main attributes of celebrating of New Year it: a live fur-tree (the truth, in modern Russia the artificial fur-tree — because of availability and possibility of reusable use is preferred), various Christmas-tree decorations, and also obligatory gifts for favorite and close people. The main characters, it is possible to tell, heroes of a holiday are Father Frost and the Snow Maiden — without them cannot manage not only mass celebrating, but also a private congratulation that madly pleases children.

The basic dishes on a celebratory table make salads, hot, fruit (tangerines) and a considerable quantity of spirits (in particular champagne). Any New Year does not do without fireworks, Bengal fires, crackers and salutes.

In comparison with other world, Russia actively celebrates two New Year's holidays. One in the night from December, thirty first for January, first, and the second, «Old New year» on thirteenth of January that surprises foreigners got on New Year's holidays to Russia as at the majority of the countries arrival of New year means much, only change of a calendar cycle and widely it is not marked (celebrated), attaching special significance to Christmas. Now it seems to us that so was always. But the tradition of a meeting of New Year is much younger, than in the countries of Europe. New Year in Ancient Russia, as well as at many other people, began in March and merged with the pagan holiday of a pancake week marking a seeing-off of winter and a meeting of spring. In the tenth century with Christianity acceptance to Russia has come юлианскийa calendar on which year began on first of September. But only in the end of the fifteenth century this date began to be marked (celebrated) officially as the beginning of church and civil New Year. And only Peter I, carrying out calendar reform, in 1700 has established (installed) the beginning of New Year since January, 1st. The special decree Peter I demanded solemn and cheerful celebrating of this event. Moscow, therefore all celebrating was capital then passed (took place) on Red Square. However since 1704 of a celebration have been transferred (carried) to northern capital. However, in those days not feast and national гулянияwas the main thing. By January, 1st of the house of grandees and commoners were decorated by fur-tree or pine branches which needed to be dressed up not toys, as now, and fruit, vegetables, nuts and even eggs. And all products were not only an ornament, but also symbols: apples were a symbol of fertility, egg a symbol of harmony and full well-being. Since then the meeting of New Year with a green fur-tree, needles, and then with Father Frost and the Snow Maiden became on first of January traditional in our country. Old New Year is the holiday marked (celebrated) according to New Year on юлианскомуto a calendar (now in the night from 13 for January, 14th) and being, as a matter of fact, a historical echo of change of chronology. It (He) is known and popular in Russia though it is marked (celebrated) also in Serbia, Switzerland and some other countries. It (He) is marked (celebrated) in a greater degree by those who could not meet New Year on thirty first of December. And also the Russian orthodox Christians who observe from November, twenty till January, sixth the Christmas post and which to meet New year on Julian sky style more conveniently not to break instructions of the Christmas post.

Christmas

Since 1991 as the state holiday the Christmas marked in Russia on seventh of January has been restored. The announcement of an orthodox religious holiday a day off in such multinational country as Russia has demanded the flexible mechanism of the account of national and religious traditions of all people. Every time when we step over a threshold of New Year, on a shower it becomes especially warm, because in some days there will come the Christmas Holiday! A Christmas — surprising time when heart is filled with miracle expectation… And this miracle occurs! «The Christ is born, glorify! » — Rushes over the Universe, — «the Christ from heavens, meet! » — All world sings of glory of the Creator. Angelic forces and mankind — together glorify what love has no borders. And, probably, therefore a Christmas name «Winter Easter». Each of us tries to spend this day not how any another: to present good and love to the loved one, to become better, and the most important thing — is closer to God. On January, 6th at 12 o'clock in the morning solemn divine service in orthodox temples begins. And on January, 7th it is accepted to congratulate friends and native on this light holiday. Unlike Europeans who aspire to note Christmas in the bosom of the family, and even doors close, in Russia it is accepted to hold doors opened that all who wishes to celebrate Christmas came, to share celebratory pleasure. Christmas eve has received the name «Christmas Eve», and a word it occurs from the ritual food tasted this day – сочива, porridges from red wheat or barley, a rye, гречихи, mixed with honey and with almond and маковымjuice.

/>The food in Christmas Eve could not be accepted to the first star, in memory of the Bethlehem star, announced to magicians about Christmas of the Savior. And with approach of twilight when the first star lighted up, sat down a table and shared облатками, wishing each other all kind and light.

Christmas — a holiday when all family together gathers behind the big table. The table prepared the plentiful. Pancakes, fish dishes, aspic, студеньfrom pork and beef legs. A fragrant dairy pig with a stuffing from porridge, a pork head with a horse-radish, pork sausage house, roast, honey spice-cakes, сбитеньand, of course, a fried goose.

Christmas-tide begins with Christmas – continuous holidays which last before Kreshchensky Christmas Eve and are accompanied by walks, visiting native and friends, masquerades. In olden time it was accepted колядовать.

The sparrow flies, by a tail twirls. And you, people, know tables dim.

Visitors accept,

Christmas meet!

 

On the Christmas-tide in Russia it was from time immemorial accepted рядиться, to arrange cheerful games, to go on houses, to awake sleeping, to congratulate all passers on sun turn for the summer, and later, after Christianity acceptance, with Christmas, to joke, sing songs. Came to an end колядкиwith a general fun, driving from hills, the general feast.

Svjatochnye guessing is various and numerous. Girls, sometimes under the direction of the senior women were engaged in them. Whether and interested them they, first of all, will marry next year or remain in girls will be rich or poor, in general, will be live or will die. Therefore very many guessing связанныwith searches of the promised.

After Celebrating of New year, the Christmas will come to Russia. Remains to very few times to meet a holiday according to Russian traditions, cheerfully and hospitably.

Christening of Gospodne (Sacred Epiphany)

On January, 19th Russians celebrate Kreshchenie Gospodne. In memory that this day Jesus Christ has accepted a christening in the river Jordan, in orthodox temples water which parishioners store then the whole year is consecrated. From temples to cross-shaped ice-holes pass religious processions. Believers plunge into ice-holes, symbolizing it a christening ceremony. Besides, it is considered that bathing for the Christening helps to recover from various illnesses. An Epiphany — one of twelve basic (great) orthodox holidays.

Day of students (Tatjanin day)

On twenty fifth of January Russians celebrate Day of the student or Tatiana day. The decree empress Elizabeth Petrovnoj January, twelfth, 1755 on Tatiana day has signed the decree «About establishment of the Moscow university». Since then on twelfth of January students celebrate the holiday – Day of students and sacred Tatyana became the patroness of all students. In the nineteenth century since January, twelfth a student's vacation began. This day it was accepted to arrange celebrations on which awards under solemn speeches were distributed. Then it is day named not Tatiana day, and «Day of the basis of the Moscow University». Celebrated Day of the student in the beginning only in Moscow. Гулянияpassed very magnificently and consisted of two parts. At first there was an official part, and then the holiday passed to streets in which all inhabitants of capital took participation. Nicolay’s decree of the first had been signed the certificate about university establishment, instead of its opening. Thanks to its students had a holiday – Day of the student. Day of the student – celebrate and now. It put modern youth celebrates also it is noisy and it is cheerful, as hundred years ago. The poor student never will miss the chance to shirk study, but according to popular wisdom, from its infinite celebration distracts only time.

Day sacred Valentine (Valentine day)

/>Love!  When both sad and funny.

Love!  When do not like, anyway.

Love!  Although not the favorite name.

Love!  Love thy will understand.

Love!  His heart command.

Love!  His love of expensive.

Love!  When the terms of good and evil.

Love!  And should not it be otherwise!

On fourteenth of February — an especial holiday. It is known as Valentine’s Day — a holiday of all enamored. It is one of few foreign holidays whom it is successful at us has got accustomed and every year becomes more and more mass. It is possible to consider it joint — both men, and female. It can celebrate at any age, after all the love does not have borders. Loving couples mark this romantic holiday all over the world. As it is known, the name to this holiday was given by simple Christian priest Valentine who secretly crowned enamored legionaries, for what has been executed.

As the Christian martyr priest Valentine for the belief has been canonized by church. In 496 year on fourteenth of February by the Pope has been declared in the Afternoon of sacred Valentine. In Russia and the CIS countries Day of sacred Valentine is marked from the beginning of the ninetieth years of the twentieth century.

On February, 23rd Day of the defender of fatherland

On twenty third of February in Russia it is accepted to congratulate men on Day of the defender of Fatherland (the holiday was marked for the first time at the time of Soviet Union and it is marked now in Russia, in Ukraine, in Belarus and Dnestr region). This day we pay a tribute of respect and thanks to those who courageously protected the native earth from aggressors, and also that who in a peace time draws hard and responsible duty. Informally the holiday is considered day of men which accept congratulations since February, twenty third not only from an opposite sex, but also from friends and colleagues. For the first time the holiday was marked in 1922 and «Day of Red army» was called. With 1946 on 1993 it was called «Day of the Soviet Army and Navy fleet». For today on twenty third of February according to the Federal law of the Russian Federation «About days of military glory (victorious days) Russia» (1995) is called as Day of the defender of Fatherland. In 2002 the State Duma of the Russian Federation has made decision to make on twenty third of February the day off.

Pancake week

Pancake week — one of the most joyful and light holidays. The whole week the people see off the bothered winter, bake pancakes and visit. A pancake week for us, as a carnival for Italians. As in a translation from Italian «carnival» is meant «by beef, farewell! ». And the pancake week previous the Lent, long since was called as «Mjasopustom» as this week it was forbidden to eat meat. Some historians consider that in the ancient time the Pancake week was связаннаwith day of a spring solstice, but with acceptance of Christianity it began to anticipate the Lent and to depend on its terms. On every day buttered week there were certain ceremonies. On Monday – the Pancake week meeting, on Tuesday — folk tunes. On the gourmand that is on Wednesday of buttered week the mother-in-law invited to pancakes of sons-in-law with wives. Especially this custom was observed concerning young, recently got married. For certain from here expression «to the mother-in-law on pancakes» also has gone. On wide Thursday there were the most crowded санныеdriving. On Friday — mother-in-law's вечерки — sons-in-law called the mother-in-law on an entertainment. Saturday was taken away золовкинымto a sit-round gathering. Sunday was called «прощенымin the afternoon». This day all visited relatives, friends and acquaintances, exchanged kisses, bows and were sorry each other if have offended words or acts.

Women's day     8 Martha

On eighth of March — «the International women's day», a holiday of spring and attention to the woman. This day we do not work, and ours «fine halves» wait from us for signs on attention, colours and gifts. We rejoice to a holiday. Passes time, the sense of a holiday varies, and we sometimes wonder: what, actually, and what for we celebrate? The beginning to the International women's day which today mark donation of gifts, colours and poetic посвящениямиto women, was put not less by the celebrated personality — Clara Tsetkin. The beginning of celebrating of the International women's day in day on March, 8th has begun since 1911. For the first time the holiday to women, has been celebrated in Germany, Austria, Denmark, and Sweden. Russia has joined this list since 1913. As a result of activity of the International female organisation for protection of the rights of women, in 1985 in 88 countries of the world recognised the right of women and have stopped fair sex discrimination in the decision of political and other questions. The international women's day has been celebrated for the first time in Russia – in Petersburg in 1913 In May, 1965 on March, 8th has been declared by a day off. In the USSR and new Russia the holiday 8 Martha was and remains to one of the most favourite.

Day of laughter 

Custom to have fun and deceive each other on first of April exists in many countries. «Day of laughter» or «Day дурашка» — so call this holiday and mark it in spite of the fact that it is not brought in one official calendar of significant events. In Russia, according to historians and ethnographers, celebrating on first of April — an echo of pagan rite in honour of arrival of spring. Being afraid of «old woman-winter», wishing it to banish more likely, our ancestors changed clothes in skins of animals, put on masks that she has not learnt offenders, with songs and dancings burnt its stuffed animal and met the beauty-spring. Besides, in Russia considered that the malicious demon on first of April wakes up, and consequently it is necessary to deceive in every possible way each other to confuse him.

 

Well and the first case of mass draw has taken place in Moscow at the time of Peter I. In 1700 the holder of troupe of German comedians declared that during representation will get into an ordinary bottle. To the people at theatre has gathered much, and on a stage have taken out a bottle with an inscription «on First of April». Speak, for the most dull people the German has some times put a finger in a bottle to show that it has made a fool of them: see supposedly even my finger in a bottle does not climb, and I and will not climb through for a long time. In Russia the morning April Fools' alarm sounding usually in case of a fire became ridiculous draw and having roused all Petersburgers who have soon understood that became victims of draw. Still couple of years back Russians in large quantities took a great interest in jokes, like: «At you a back white!» Or «at you laces were untied!» Some come across till now on these old kind draws.

Easter Christ'sChrist Voskresi!Truly Voskresi!

Light Christ's Revival has come to Russia — the most important orthodox holiday. This day special and familiar to us since the childhood. We learn it on brightly painted chicken яичкам, on is tasty to the smelling Easter cakes covered with a multi-coloured crumb on white glaze and on special joyful persons of people, coming back of a temple. Orthodox such holiday consider as the most important thing and name a holiday of holidays — Easter. Orthodox Easter in Russia is marked on the first Sunday after a spring equinox and a March full moon. Easter still name a life holiday, and even inveterate atheists are reserved by an onions peel for a paint of eggs and with pleasure knead celebratory Easter cakes. Easter — a holiday, drawing the beauty and improbable atmosphere of all: big and small, believing and doubting. A church celebration of the most important holiday of the orthodox people really grandiosely. And preparation for celebrating begins beforehand. On Saturday believers bear Easter cakes in church, eggs and Easter for consecration without which the Easter cake remains simply rich bread, and egg — will lose the symbolical value. By the way, many people on ignorance name the baked Easter cakes which are on sale on the eve of a holiday in many shops — Easter. Not to get to awkward position it is necessary to know that Easter is a dish from cottage cheese with every possible additives. It unlike Easter cakes is not baked.

Divine service in a temple begins with canon and religious procession reading. In churches time has begun divine services can be various. In the main temple of Volgograd the Kazan cathedral canon reading begins, approximately at 23.15 — 23.30. The people coming in the night from Saturday to Sunday in a temple on Easter divine service, become witnesses of the sacred action not similar on any others. Before its beginning in temples all fixtures are lighted, believing stand with candles, and there is no more brightly and more joyfully a service, than in night of Revival of Jesus Christ.

In days of old solemn Divine service was made in the presence of the tsar who upon termination of a ceremony did not shun христосоваться with boyars and court. Христосоваться it is accepted not only in day of Easter, but also the next days. Meeting people should kiss and exchange by all means red яичками. Before it it is necessary to say: «Christ Voskresi!». Or to answer: «Truly Voskresi!». After all Easter is a holiday of Revival of the Christ. Such greetings people announce a victory of a life eternal over death. Under the legend Maria Magdalina has presented the first Easter egg to the Roman emperor Tiberiju. It has come to Rome with a great joyful message about Revival of the Christ. Maria was poor and, without having anything, except the belief, joyfully having exclaimed: «Christ Voskresi!», has presented to the emperor a usual egg. Тиберий was sceptical about words of the woman, having doubted that someone can revive from the dead.« Also it is difficult to believe in it, as that this egg can become red! »- the emperor has told and has not believed to the eyes: egg in his hands wonderfully became scarlet. Since then traditional red Easter eggs symbolise blood of the Christ and are the Revival symbol. For children Easter eggs a wonderful entertainment and an occasion to play pranks. Games on разбивание eggs and their driving carry away all children, looking on which adults rejoice.

The pleasure distinguishes Easter from all other holidays. Not that pleasure that that pleasure is received from fair quantity of strong drinks in a New Year's eve, not that comes with reception of expensively gift at date of enamoured, and pleasure of that a life is fine that it does not come to an end that it proceeds eternally. Easter — a life holiday! A holiday when «the soul Russian as though is dissolved and softened in warm beams of Christ's love», reviving for good deeds and light thoughts.

Holiday of spring and work

On first of May it was celebrated in the Russian empire for the first time in 1890 in Warsaw, and in 1891 already in capital — in St.-Petersburg.

Its first name — Day of the international solidarity of workers. In Soviet Union a holiday often named simply on number – on first of May.

In the Russian Federation it is marked, as a holiday of Spring and Work.

As though it named – Day of solidarity of workers or a holiday of spring and work, for many on first of May traditionally symbolizes revival and arrival of spring.

The big emotional charge which it bears in itself (himself) is connected not only with sensation of spring awakening of the nature, but also with perception on first of May as the general celebration rallying all Russians. «A mass holiday» on first of May became in the USSR. And it really was the holiday for the workers who have received in addition two days off. May гулянияpassed on all country. This day people amicably went on demonstration with headers and colours. The celebratory table was obligatory attribute of the 1st of May.

On May, 9th — a Victory Day!

On May, 9th, 1945 Russian people have gained a great victory over the aggressor. The tests, fallen to a lot of our people were rather fiery.

Here half a century a Victory Day already there is more serves as a strong, indissoluble thread between us, present generation, and generation of front-line soldiers, military workers, winners. The Victory Day is a proof of that Russians — special, surprisingly strong nation. And however many has passed years and how many the words full thanks and love, has not sounded, the young generation always will be in eternal to a debt to veterans.

In 2005 60 years of the Victory in the Great Patriotic War were executed. The basic celebratory actions devoted to this date, have taken place 8 — on May, 10th in Moscow. The capital of Russia has accepted tens foreign delegations from all continents led by heads of the states and the governments. In the Russian regions 9-og May marked the Victory 60 anniversary in the Great Patriotic War. On celebrations on the occasion of an anniversary informs ITAR-TASS.

Ten thousand inhabitants of Kursk have come today to a memorial fallen in days of the Great Patriotic War to pay a tribute of memory to heroes and to assign flowers to their tombs. So populous celebrations in a Victory Day many years here were not observed. On Red Square of Kursk military parade and solemn meeting has taken place.

On a main square of Samara — the areas of Kuibyshev — today for the first time for last 4 years there has passed military parade. It was opened by 120 veterans of the Great Patriotic War. Dressed in the field form and groundsheets they have solemnly passed on the area on реставрированныхtrucks of wartime ГАЗ-67. After them a smart march have passed one and a half thousand military men of the Second Guards army deployed in territory of the Samara region.

Aerobatic manoeuvres in the sky over a city were shown by pilots of country council РОСТО. All interested persons by tradition treated with soldier's porridge.

Ten thousand калининградцевhave come today to a sacred place for all — to a memorial to 1200 heroes-guardsmen — to pay a memory tribute to the Soviet soldiers who were lost in days of the Great Patriotic War.

It is the first memorial, erected in Soviet Union in honour of the fallen heroes upon termination of war. It has immortalised a feat of the Red Army men who were lost at storm of a fortified city of Kenigsberg is equal a month before the Great Victory. On the eve of a holiday reconstruction of a memorial to which in September 60 years will be executed has been finished.

Veterans of war have headed a smart system of armies of the Kaliningrad garrison. They bore banners of 1st Baltic, 2nd and 3rd Belarus fronts, and also the Baltic fleet, Soviet armies participating in East Prussian offensive operation and storm of Kenigsberga.

Celebratory celebrations have passed in Tver — the first regional centre, released from fascist aggressors.

Thousand townspeople, despite a rain, have passed in colourful columns the central city streets. When meeting has begun and greetings to veterans have begun to sound, the rain has stopped, the sun has looked out.

«Words of a congratulation to front-line soldiers, workers of back in an especial way sound on our Tver earth. In frosty December of 41st Kalininsky offensive operation has begun. It was a component of the plan of defeat of fascist armies near Moscow», — the mayor of Tver Oleg Lebedev has told on meeting. It has reminded that Kalinin (Tver) became the first regional centre released from fascist aggressors.

The enemy has had here the big losses — more than 10 thousand killed and wounded men.

With solemn поминальныхceremonies on military burial places celebrating of the 60 anniversary of the Great Victory in Arkhangelsk has begun today. Thousand people почтилиmemory fallen also have assigned flowers to their tombs. In territory of the front Arkhangelsk region 31 military hospitals on 16 thousand cots has been developed. Hundreds fighters have died here of wounds and illnesses.

After all ceremonies and возложенийcolours, people disperse. In the evening at ten o'clock start to give salute in honour of a Victory Day. People leave on streets and admire on beautiful fireworks.

Day of mother (Mum's day) in Russia

In Russia to mark «Day of mother» became rather recently. Though it is impossible to argue that this holiday — an eternity holiday: from generation to generation for each person mum – the most important person in a life. Becoming mother, the woman opens in itself better qualities: kindness, love and care. The new holiday – «Day of Mother» — gradually gets accustomed in Russia. Based by the President of the Russian Federation on January, 30th, 1998, it is celebrated last Sunday November, doing justice to parent work and their disinterested victim for the sake of the blessing of children. And it is correct: how many good, kind words it has been told to mums, how many occasions for this purpose have thought up, superfluous they will not be. Among the numerous holidays marked in our country, «Day of Mother» takes a special place. It is a holiday to which nobody can remain indifferent. This day it would be desirable to tell gratitude words to all Mothers who give to children love, good, tenderness and caress. Thanks you!.. And let to each of you tell warm words your favourite children more! Let on their persons the smile and joyful sparkles is shone sparkle in eyes, when you together! The Russian mothers were distinguished always by generosity of soul, fidelity, self-sacrifice, love and great patience. And today they carefully store the family centre, learn children to good, mutual understanding, morals. Day of mother answers the best traditions of the relation of Russians to motherhood, unites all layers of the Russian society on ideas of good and honouring of the woman-mother.

Day of mother — a holiday youngish. It yet has no established traditions, in the family circle very few people marks it. But, we hope that in due course value of this day will increase, because on sense and the maintenance it is the most sacred holiday.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

www.ronl.ru

Смотрите также