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The Renaissance/ Italy’s Decline Essay, Research Paper

World Civilization I

The Renaissance/ Italy’s Decline

Identification: The Renaissance /Italy’s Decline

Definition: The period in European civilization immediately following the Middle Ages, conventionally held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in classical learning and values. Set in the city-states of Italy in the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the constant uncertainty, both economic and political, and extreme volatility of the historical situation provided the material for new intellectual, cultural, and social experiments that would at their conclusion provide the means of constructing a new European mono-cultural identity, one focused on humanistic studies, science, and the arts. This historical background is surprisingly volatile; while one might assume that political stability and economic security are prerequisites for intellectual and cultural experimentation, some of the most radical and far-reaching cultural work in the Renaissance was done in the periods of greatest insecurity.

Historical Significance, Historical Carry Over (Bold):

The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new continents, the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy, the decline of the feudal system and the growth of commerce, and the invention or application of such potentially powerful innovations as paper, printing, the mariner’s compass, and gunpowder. To the scholars and thinkers of the day, however, it was primarily a time of the revival of classical learning and wisdom after a long period of cultural decline and stagnation.

The increasing failure of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire to provide a stable and unifying framework for the organization of spiritual and material life, the rise in importance of city-states and national monarchies, the development of national languages, and the breakup of the old feudal structures.

While the spirit of the Renaissance ultimately took many forms, it was expressed earliest by the intellectual movement called Humanism. Humanism was initiated by secular men of letters rather than by the scholar-clerics who had dominated medieval intellectual life and had developed the Scholastic philosophy. Humanism began and achieved fruition first in Italy. Its predecessors were men like Dante and Petrarch, and its chief protagonists included Gianozzo Manetti, Leonardo Bruni, Marsilio Ficino, Pico della Mirandola, Lorenzo Valla, and Coluccio Salutati. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 provided Humanism with a major boost, for many eastern scholars fled to Italy, bringing with them important books and manuscripts and a tradition of Greek scholarship.

From Italy the new Humanist spirit and the Renaissance it engendered spread north to all parts of Europe, aided by the invention of printing, which allowed literacy and the availability of classical texts to grow explosively. Foremost among northern Humanists was Desiderius Erasmus, whose Praise of Folly (1509) epitomized the moral essence of Humanism in its insistence on heartfelt goodness as opposed to formalistic piety. The intellectual stimulation provided by Humanists helped spark the Reformation, from which, however, many Humanists, including Erasmus, recoiled. By the end of the 16th century the battle of Reformation and Counter-Reformation had commanded much of Europe’s energy and attention, while the intellectual life was poised on the brink of the Enlightenment.

It was in art that the spirit of the Renaissance achieved its sharpest formulation. Art came to be seen as a branch of knowledge, valuable in its own right and capable of providing man with images of God and his creations as well as with insights into man’s position in the universe. In the hands of men like Leonardo da Vinci it was even a science, a means for exploring nature and a record of discoveries. Art was to be based on the observation of the visible world and practiced according to mathematical principles of balance, harmony, and perspective, which were developed at this time. In the works of painters such as Masaccio, the brothers Lorenzetti, Fra Angelico, Botticelli, Perugino, Piero della Francesca, Raphael, and Titian; sculptors such as Pisano, Donatello, Verrocchio, Ghiberti, and Michelangelo; and architects such as Alberti, Brunelleschi, Palladio, Michelozzo, and Filarete, the dignity of man found expression in the arts.

In Italy the Renaissance proper was preceded by an important “proto-renaissance” in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, which drew inspiration from Franciscan radicalism. St. Francis had rejected the formal Scholasticism of the prevailing Christian theology and gone out among the poor praising the beauties and spiritual value of nature. His example inspired Italian artists and poets to take pleasure in the world around them. The work of the most famous artist of the proto-renaissance period, Giotto (1266/67 or 1276-1337), reveals a new pictorial style that depends on clear, simple structure and great psychological penetration rather than on the flat, linear decorativeness and hierarchical compositions of his predecessors and contemporaries. The great poet Dante lived at about the same time as Giotto, and his poetry shows a similar concern with inward experience and the subtle shades and variations of human nature. Although his Divine Comedy belongs to the Middle Ages in its plan and ideas, its subjective spirit and power of expression look forward to the Renaissance. Petrarch and Boccaccio also belong to this proto-renaissance period, both through their extensive studies of Latin literature and through their writings in the vernacular. Unfortunately, the terrible plague of 1348 and subsequent civil wars submerged both the revival of humanistic studies and the growing interest in individualism and naturalism revealed in the works of Giotto and Dante. The spirit of the Renaissance did not surface again until the 15th century.

In 1401 a competition was held at Florence to award the commission for bronze doors to be placed on the baptistery of San Giovanni. Defeated by the goldsmith and painter Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi and Donatello left for Rome, where they immersed themselves in the study of ancient architecture and sculpture. When they returned to Florence and began to put their knowledge into practice, the rationalized art of the ancient world was reborn. The founder of Renaissance painting was Masaccio (1401-28). The intellectuality of his conceptions, the monumentality of his compositions, and the high degree of naturalism in his works mark Masaccio as a pivotal figure in Renaissance painting. The succeeding generation of artists–Piero della Francesca, Pollaiuolo, and Verrochio–pressed forward with researches into linear and aerial perspective and anatomy, developing a style of scientific naturalism.

The situation in Florence was uniquely favorable to the arts. The civic pride of Florentines found expression in statues of the patron saints commissioned from Ghiberti and Donatello for niches in the grain-market guildhall known as Or San Michele, and in the largest dome built since antiquity, placed by Brunelleschi on the Florence cathedral. The cost of construction and decoration of palaces, churches, and monasteries was underwritten by wealthy merchant families, chief among whom were the Medici family.

The Medici traded in all of the major cities in Europe, and one of the most famous masterpieces of Northern Renaissance art, The Portinari Altarpiece, by Hugo van der Goes (c. 1476; Uffizi, Florence), was commissioned by their agent, Tommaso Portinari. Instead of being painted with the customary tempera of the period, the work is painted with translucent oil glazes that produce brilliant jewel-like color and a glossy surface. Early Northern Renaissance painters were more concerned with the detailed reproduction of objects and their symbolic meaning than with the study of scientific perspective and anatomy even after these achievements became widely known. On the other hand, central Italian painters began to adopt the oil medium soon after The Portinari Altarpiece was brought to Florence in 1476.

High Renaissance art, which flourished for about 35 years, from the early 1490s to 1527, when Rome was sacked by imperial troops, revolved around three towering figures: Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564), and Raphael (1483-1520). Each of the three embodied an important aspect of the period: Leonardo was the ultimate Renaissance man, a solitary genius to whom no branch of study was foreign; Michelangelo emanated creative power, conceiving vast projects that drew for inspiration on the human body as the ultimate vehicle for emotional expression; Raphael created works that perfectly expressed the classical spirit–harmonious, beautiful, and serene.

Although Leonardo was recognized in his own time as a great artist, his restless researches into anatomy, the nature of flight, and the structure of plant and animal life left him little time to paint. His fame rests on a few completed works; among them are the “Mona Lisa” (1503-05, Louvre), “The Virgin of the Rocks” (c. 1485, Louvre), and the sadly deteriorated fresco “The Last Supper” (1495-98, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan).

Michelangelo’s early sculpture, such as the “Piet?” (1499, St. Peter’s, Rome) and the “David” (1501-04, Accademia, Florence), reveals a breathtaking technical ability in concert with a disposition to bend rules of anatomy and proportion in the service of greater expressive power. Although Michelangelo thought of himself first as a sculptor, his best-known work is the giant ceiling fresco of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican, Rome. It was completed in four years, from 1508 to 1512, and presents an incredibly complex but philosophically unified composition that fuses traditional Christian theology with Neoplatonic thought.

Raphael’s greatest work, “The School of Athens” (1508-11), was painted in the Vatican at the same time that Michelangelo was working on the Sistine Chapel. In this large fresco Raphael brought together representatives of the Aristotelian and Platonic schools of thought. Instead of the densely packed, turbulent surface of Michelangelo’s masterpiece, Raphael placed his groups of calmly conversing philosophers and artists in a vast court with vaults receding into the distance. Leonardo initially influenced Raphael, and he incorporated the pyramidal composition and beautifully modeled faces of “The Virgin of the Rocks” into many of his own paintings of the Madonna. He differed from Leonardo, however, in his prodigious output, his even temperament, and his preference for classical harmony and clarity.

Slavery flourished during this time partly because of the many lives lost during the Black Death and due to the nature of the morality of the Renaissance times. Many laborers were needed on the sugar cane plantations and for domestic duties. The slaves were multi-cultural being black or white coming from conquered peoples from Africa, eastern Mediterranean and lands around the Black Sea. Slaves were a part of a bride’s dowry, doctors took slaves in lieu of fees from his patients, and even priest had slaves in their service. Owners had complete dominion over the slaves due to Italian law.

The treaty of Lodi between Venice and Milan ended the war and marked the beginning of a 40-year period of relative peace. During this time power was balanced among the five states that dominated the Italian peninsula–Venice, Milan, Naples, Florence, and the Papal states.

The creator of High Renaissance architecture was Donato Bramante (1444-1514), who came to Rome in 1499, when he was 55. His first Roman masterpiece, the Tempietto (1502) at S. Pietro in Montorio, is a centralized dome structure that recalls classical temple architecture. Pope Julius II (reigned 1503-13) chose Bramante to be papal architect, and together they devised a plan to replace the 4th-century Old St. Peter’s with a new church of gigantic dimensions. The project was not completed, however, until long after Bramante’s death.

Humanistic studies continued under the powerful popes of the High Renaissance, Julius II and Leo X, as did the development of polyphonic music. The Sistine Choir, which performed at services when the pope officiated, drew musicians and singers from all of Italy and northern Europe. Among the most famous composers who became members were Josquin des Prez (1445-1521) and Palestrina (1525-84).

The Renaissance as a unified historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527. The strains between Christian faith and classical humanism led to Mannerism in the latter part of the 16th century. The Renaissance spirit, however, continued to be made in northern Italy and in northern Europe.

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Топик 0718. (A). Моя Венеция

Гордеева Мария. Школа №56, Магнитогорск, Челябинская область, РоссияСочинение на английском языке с переводом. Номинация Наш мир.

I am keen on travelling. I have visited a lot of countries. But mostly I am fond of Italy! This country is a historical centre of world culture. Italy impressed me.

I was in Italy with my mother. We decided to visit Venice. I think it was really exciting, because Venice is like another world. I couldn’t wait to see this wonderful place, and I dreamed to visit it. I had been looking forward to that day.

In the morning I and my mom were waiting for the bus, which would bring us to the port. It was early morning, so I was very sleepy, but I was dreaming about Venice. Then, other tourists came to the bus stop. We hadn’t been waiting very long, the bus came on time. The way to the port wasn’t long. I looked through the window and saw a lot of shops, one or two churches. While we were sitting in the bus, our guide was telling some information about Venice. In the port we went on board ship. The sea voyage was perfect and unforgettable. The sea and sky were marine and sun was shining. It was sea breeze and I like it very much. When we arrived in Venice first I saw many little souvenir shops, a lot of tourists from different countries. Mother and I decided to take a gondola and float along narrow channels. We saw Marco Polo’s house, Casanova’s house and other houses of Italian famous people. Then we walked along little crowded streets buying gifts and presents for father, grannies and friends. We also were at the famous square, where there are many pigeons. They were flying around us. It was one of the best in my life. I liked Venice very much.

I also visited Rome last year. This picturesque and beautiful city amazed me! First I saw the world famous Coliseum. It was so huge, but graceful and elegant. In the evening it was illuminated with lots of lights and looked perfect. In Rome I visited a lot of different ancient places, for example: National Monument of Victor Emmanuel II, Saint Peter`s Square, Trevi Fountain and etc.

I want to tell more about these sights. National Monument of Victor Emmanuel II is a beautiful building, which includes many columns and statues. It stands out for its white colour and looks like a beautiful palace or some people called it “fiancee’s cake”.

Another sight is Saint Peter`s Square. This square is very big and there are always many people. There is an Egyptian obelisk in the middle of the square. There situated Saint Peter`s Cathedral. I have never seen so huge and magnificent basilica! There were statues and monuments of Saint Elena, Saint Andrew, Saint Peter etc. I saw Michelangelo’s Pieta and a lot of gravestones of Roman papas.

What a splendid place is Trevi Fountain! I was here only at night, so I don’t how it looks like during the noon. But at night there was a lot of lights and it seemed like water was shining. In the middle there was Neptune sitting on the sea shell and near were tritons and sea horses. My mum and I threw two coins into fountain so that we will come to Rome again.

In conclusion, I would like to say that Italy combines history and beauty of the world. I am fond of this country and I want to visit it more and more times.

Я увлекаюсь путешествиями. Я посетила много стран. Но главным образом я увлечена Италией! Эта страна - исторический центр мировой культуры. Италия произвела на меня впечатление.

Я была в Италии с моей мамой. Мы решили посетить Венецию. Я думаю, что это было действительно захватывающе, потому что Венеция похожа на другой мир. Я не могла ждать, чтобы увидеть это замечательное место, и я мечтала посетить его. В тот день я с нетерпением ждала этого дня.

Утром я и моя мама ждали автобуса, который привезет нас к порту. Это было рано утром, вот почему, я была очень сонная, но мне снилась Венеция. Позже другие туристы зашли на автобусной остановке. Мы не ждали очень долго, автобус прибыл вовремя. Путь к порту не был долгим. Я смотрела в окно и видела много магазинов, одной или две церкви. В то время как мы сидели в автобусе, наш гид рассказывал о Венеции. В порту мы сели на корабль. Морское путешествие было прекрасно и незабываемо. Море и небо были голубыми, и светило солнце. Это был морской бриз, и мне это очень нравится. Когда мы прибыли в Венецию сначала, я увидела много небольших сувенирных магазинов, много туристов из разных стран. Мама и я решили взять гондолу и поплыть по узким каналам. Мы видели дом Марко Поло, дом Казановы и другие дома итальянских известных людей. Потом мы шли по небольшим переполненным улицам, покупая подарки для папы, бабушек и друзей. Мытакже были на известной площади, где есть много голубей. Они летали вокруг нас. Это был один из лучших моментов в моей жизни. Мне очень понравилась Венеция.

В прошлом году я также посетила Рим. Этот живописный и красивый город поразил меня! Сначала я увидела всемирно известный Колизей. Он был настолько огромным, но изящным и элегантным. Вечером он был освещен большим количеством огней и выглядел прекрасно. В Риме я посетила много различных древних мест, например: Национальный Памятник Виктора Эммануэля II, площадь Святого Петра, Фонтан Треви и и т.д.

Я хочу рассказать больше об этих достопримечательностях. Национальный Памятник Виктора Эммануэля II - это красивое здание, которое включает много колонн и статуй. Он выделяется своим белым цветом и похож на красивый дворец, или некоторые люди называют его “пирогом невесты”.

Другая достопримечательность - площадь Святого Петра. Эта площадь очень большая и там всегда есть многолюдей. В центре площади стоит египетский обелиск. Там находится Собор Святого Петра. Я никогда не видела настолько огромную и великолепную базилику! Там были статуи и памятники Святой Елены, Святого Андрея, Святого Петра и т.д. Я видела гробницу Микеланджело и много могильных камней римских пап.

Какое роскошное место - Фонтан Треви! Я была здесь только ночью, вот почему, я не знаю, как он выглядит в полдень. Но ночью было много огней, и казалось, что вода сияла. В середине был Нептун, сидящий на морской раковине, и рядом были тритоны и морские коньки. Моя мама и я бросили две монеты в фонтан так, чтобы мы приехали в Рим снова.

В заключение я бы хотела сказать, что Италия объединяет историю и красоту мира. Я люблю эту страну, и я хочу посетить ее еще раз.

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Италия

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Начальная Windows Commander Far WinNavigator Frigate Norton Commander WinNC Dos Navigator Servant Salamander Turbo Browser Winamp, Skins, Plugins Необходимые Утилиты Текстовые редакторы Юмор		File managers and best utilites Главная » Реферат » Реферат италия на английском языке Интересные факты про Италию на английском. Реферат италия на английском языке Интересные факты про Италию на английском Интересные факты про Италию на английском языке с переводом помогут узнать много нового и подготовиться к уроку. Интересные факты про Италию на английском языке Italy is officially known as the Italian Republic. Vatican City and San Marino are very small independent states located inside Italy. Italy belongs to the continent of Europe. Countries that border Italy are Austria, France, Vatican City, San Marino, and Switzerland. Rome is the capital city of Italy. Other major cities include Milan, Naples, Turin, and Palermo. Rome was the home to the Ancient Romans, a civilization that grew into a huge empire. Western civilization as we know today is based on many Ancient Roman principles. Italy has many earthquakes and volcanoes due to the conflict between the Eurasian and the African tectonic plates. The volcanoes Etna and Vesuvius are a constant danger to humans due to their closeness to big cities. Italy was the birthplace of the Renaissance, which was a period of great cultural achievements in poetry, painting and architecture. Famous artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael, Donatello, and Leonardo Da Vinci were part of the Renaissance. Ferrari, Lamborghini, Alfa Romeo and Maserati are well known Italian car manufacturers. The most popular sport in Italy is football (soccer). Italy has won four world cups, the last one being in 2006. Italian cuisine is popular around the world. Dishes such as pizza, spaghetti bolognese, lasagne and risotto all come from Italy. Many famous scientists and mathematicians were born and raised in Italy. Leonardo Da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Alessandro Volta, and Fibonacci to name just a few. Italy has played a large role in the history of architecture, discovering important building techniques such as the arch and the dome. Buildings such as the Colosseum, Pantheon and the Leaning Tower of Pisa are examples of such architecture. The piano is an Italian invention. Bartolomeo Cristofori invented it in 1698. Italy has made a substantial contribution to science. The electric battery, the barometer, wireless telegraphy and nitroglycerine are all Italian inventions. The nuclear reactor was invented by an Italian named Enrico Fermi. interesting facts about Italy с переводом Италия официально известная как Итальянская Республика. Ватикан и Сан-Марино очень маленькие независимые государства, расположенные в Италии. Италия относится к материку Европы. Страны, граничащие с Италией — Австрия, Франция, Ватикан, Сан-Марино и Швейцария. Рим является столицей Италии. Другие крупные города Милан, Неаполь, Турин и Палермо. Рим был домом для древних римлян, цивилизации, которая выросла в огромную империю. Западная цивилизация, как мы знаем сегодня основана на многих древних римских принципах. Италия имеет много землетрясений и вулканов из-за конфликта между евразийскими и африканскими тектоническими плитами. Вулканы Этна и Везувий являются постоянной опасностью для людей из-за их близости к крупным городам. Италия является родиной Возрождения, периода больших культурных достижений в поэзии, живописи и архитектуре. Известные художники, такие как Микеланджело, Рафаэль, Донателло и Леонардо да Винчи были частью эпохи Возрождения. Ferrari, Lamborghini, Alfa Romeo и Maserati хорошо известные итальянские производители автомобилей. Самый популярный вид спорта в Италии футбол. Италия выиграла четыре мировых кубков, последний из которых в 2006 году. Итальянская кухня популярна во всем мире. Такие блюда, как пицца, спагетти болоньезе, лазанья и ризотто все родом из Италии. Многие известные ученые и математики родились и выросли в Италии. Леонардо да Винчи, Галилео Галилей, Алессандро Вольта и Фибоначчи, это только некоторые из них. Италия сыграла большую роль в истории архитектуры, открывая важные методы здания, такие как арки и купола. Сооружения, такие как Колизей, Пантеон и Пизанская башня являются примерами такой архитектуры. Пианино итальянское изобретение. Бартоломео Кристофори изобрел его в 1698 году. Италия внесла существенный вклад в науку. Электрическая батарея, барометр, беспроводная телеграфия и нитроглицерин — это итальянские изобретения. Ядерный реактор был изобретен итальянцем Энрико Ферми. kratkoe.com Реферат - Italy Essay Research Paper Italy Italy Italy Essay, Research Paper Italy Italy is a very exciting country to write a paper about because of its very active political history. I hope that the political history, conditions, and framework will be evident in this paper. After the expulsion of the Etruscans from what is now central Italy, ancient Italian history is largely that of the Roman Empire, of which Italy was the core. Like the rest of the empire, Italy was overrun by barbarian tribes in the early 5th century A.D. The Eastern emperors struggled over its remains, but Byzantine rule was soon displaced by that of the Lombards, except Rome, where Pope Gregory I laid the foundation for the Papal States. The persisting of Lombard threat against Rome brought the intervention of Pepin the short and Charlemagne, who established Frankish hegemony over Italy. The German king Ottoi invaded Italy and was crowned emperor by the pope; this union of Italy and Germany marked the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. Southern Italy, conquered by the Normans, eventually passed to the Angevins of Naples and the Aragonese kings of Sicily. North and central Italy saw the rise of separate city-states; these, despite constant internecine warfare, built huge commercial empires, dominated European finance, and produced the treat cultural flowering known as the Renaissance. Europe s Renaissance period began in Italy during the 14th and 15th centuries. Literary achievements such as the poetry of Petrarch, Tasso, and Ariosto and the prose of Boccaccio, Machiavelli, and Castiglione exerted a tremendous and lasting influence on the subsequent giants such as da Vinci, Raphael, Bottecelli, Fra Angelico, and Michelangelo. The musical influence of Italian composers Monteverdi, Palestrina, and Vivaldi proved epochal; in the 19th century, Italian romantic opera flourished under composers Gioacchino Rossini, Giuseppe Verdi, and Giacomo Puccini. Contemporary Italian artists, writers, filmmakers, architects, composers, and designers contribute significantly to Western culture. Beginning in the late fifteenth century, Italy became the battleground of French, Spanish, and Austrian imperialism. By the eighteenth century Italian subjection to foreign rule, notably by the Spanish Bourbans and the Austrian Hapsburgs, was complete and remained so until the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleon I redrew the map of Italy. After the Congress of Vienna, Austria, whose influence in Italy was now paramount, could not long suppress the efforts of Cavour, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuell II, who became king of Italy in 1861. Italy later acquired Venetia in 1866, and Rome and its environs in 1870. Though a member of the Triple Alliance, Italy entered World War I on the Allied side and in the peace treaty obtained additional territory, including Tyrol, Trieste, and Istria. After the war, political and social unrest encouraged the growth of fascism, and in 1922 Mussolini seized power. He created a totalitarian corporative state, conquered Ethiopia in 1936, seized Albania in 1939, and entered World War II in 1940 as an ally of Germany. In 1943 Italy surrendered to the Allies. Italy became a republic in 1946, and the king was exiled. the 1947 peace treaty deprived Italy of its colonies and considerable territory. Trieste was regained in 1954. The postwar era has seen a succession of short-lived, pro-Western coalition governments: the Communists although strong electorally, have been excluded from ministerial positions. The Mafia and organized crime have had a persistent corruption influence on postwar Italian society, and in the late 1970 s leftist guerrilla terrorism plagued the country, most notably in the kidnapping and murder of former premier Aldo Moro in 1978. The 1992 parliamentary elections resulted in centrist, four-party minority government led by Giuliano Amato, a Socialist. Corruption probes, begun in 1992, led to the arrest of hundreds of business and political figures and the investigation of many others, including several party leaders and former prime ministers. A large vote, in a 1993 referendum, in favor of ending proportional representation in Italy s senate was regarded as a call for political change, and Premier Amato resigned. Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, head of Italy s central bank, succeeded him, and legislation was passed that largely ended proportional representation in parliament. In new elections in 1994, a coalition of conservatives and neo-fascists won a majority of the seats in parliament, and silvio Berlusconi became premier. Fascism philosophy of government that glorifies the nation-state at the expense of the individual. Major concepts of fascism include opposition to democratic and socialist movements; racist ideologies, such as anti-Semitism; aggressive military policy; and belief in an authoritarian leader who embodies the ideals of the nation. Fascism generally gains support by promising social justice to discontented elements of the working and middle classes, and social order to powerful financial interests. While retaining class divisions and usually protecting capitalist and landowning interests, the fascist state exercises control of all levels of individual and economic activity, employing special police forces to instill fear. The term was first used by the party started by Mussolini, who ruled Italy from 1922 until the Italian defeat in World War II, and has also been applied to other right-wing movements, such as National Socialism in Germany and the Franco regime in Spain. The Italian Social Movement, a minor neofascist party formed in Italy after World War II, won wider support when the pervasive corruption of the governing parties was exposed in the early 1990 s and became a partner in the conservative government formed after the 1994 elections. Benito Mussolini 1883-1945, Italian fascist leader and dictator. He edited socialist newspapers but broke with the Socialists to support Italy s entry into World War I. In 1919 he organized his nationalistic followers, who wore black shirts as uniforms and practied terrorism in armed groups. In 1921 he was elected to Parlimiment and founded the National fascist party. His Fascists marched on Rome, and King Victor Emmanuel III called on Mussolini of form a government. Called Duce leader, he gradually created a dictatorship and ended parliamentary government. In 1929 he concluded the Lateran Treaty with the Vatican. His imperialistic designs led to the conquest of Ethiopia and the occupation of Albaina. He signed and alliance with Nazi Germany, but Italy s involvement in World WarII was a military failure in Greece and N Africa. The imminent Allied invasion of the Italian mainland led to a rebellion within the Fascist party. The king dismissed Mussolini and had him imprisoned, but the Germans made him a puppet ruler in N Italy. On the German collapse Mussolini was captured by Italian partisans, summarily tried, and executed. There have been frequent government turnovers since 1945. The Dominance of the Christian Democratic party during much of the postwar period lent continuity and comparative stability to Italy s political situation. From 1992 to 1997, Italy faced significant challenges as voters, disenchanted with past political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organized crime s considerable influence; demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms. In the 1993 referendums, voters approved substantial changes, including moving from a proportional to a largely majoritarian electoral system and the abolishment of some ministries. Major political parties, beset by scandal and loss of voter confidence, underwent far-reaching changes. New political forces and alignments of power emerged in March 1994 national elections. There was a major turnover in the new parliament, with 452 out of 630 deputies and 213 out of 315 senators elected for the first time. The 1994 elections also swept media magnate Silvio Berlusconi and his Freedom Pole coalition into office as Prime Minister. However, Berlusconi was forced to step down in January 1995 when one member of his coalition withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a technical government headed by Prime Minister Lamberto Dini, which fell in early 1996. In April 1996, national elections were again heald and led to the victory of a center left coalition led by Romano Prodi. Prime Minister Prodi s coalition includes the Democratic Party of the Left, the Italian Peoples Party, and other small, center left groups. To make up its Renewas Party. In the April 1997 local elections, voters split almost evenly between center right and center left coalitions. The Italian economy has changed dramatically since the end of World War II. From an agriculturally based economy, it has developed into an industrial state ranked as the world s fifth largest industrial economy. Italy belongs to the Group of Seven industrialized nations; it is a member of the European Union and the OECD. Italy has few natural resources. With much of the land unsuited for farming, it is a net food importer. There are no substantial deposits of iron, coal, or oil. Proven natural gas reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and offshore Adriatic, have grown in recent years and constitute the country s most important mineral resource. Most raw materials needed for manufacturing and more than 80% of the country s energy sources are imported. Italy s economic strength is in the processing and the manufacturing of goods, primarily in small and medium sized family owned firms. Its major industries are precision machinery, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, electric goods and fashion and clothing. Italy s economy slowed from 2.8% GDP growth in 1995 to 0.7% in 1996, one of the lowest growth rates among the industrialized economies. That is a brief history, political overview and social setting of Italy. www.ronl.ru Достопримечательности Италии/ Places of Interest in Italy
На английском языке	Перевод на русский язык
Places of Interest in Italy	Достопримечательности Италии
Italy is one of the most beautiful countries in Europe. Every year millions of tourists visit this country to see its attractions. The capital of Italy is Rome and there are certainly many interesting sights in this city, including the Colloseum, St. Peter’s Basilica, the Trevi Fountains. However, lots of Italian sights are situated outside Rome, in Florence, Venice, Milan, Pompei and other cities. One of the most attractive cities in Italy is Venice. It’s a floating city, which is made of more than 100 small islands. These islands are separated by canals but linked by numerous bridges. People especially love to take the water bus journeys along the Grand Canal. Venice also offers many interesting sights of architecture, for example, St. Mark’s Square with the Basilica and the bell tower, the Palace of Doge’s and other monuments. Venice is regarded as one of the top beautiful cities in the world. Another symbol of Italy is the Leaning Tower of Pisa. It’s a high bell tower, which is one of the oldest constructions in the country. Ancient Roman ruins can be also found in Pompei, the city in southern Italy. One of the most visited sights in Italy is St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican. Vatican is an unusual city. It’s the smallest city in the world which is situated within the city of Rome. St. Pete’s Basilica is the largest church in the world and the most famous example of Renaissance architecture. Visiting Rome, people surely go to see the Colloseum. It is an ancient Roman amphitheater in the center of the city. Being in Florence, people visit the Uffizi Gallery and the Ponte Vecchio. The Uffizi Gallery is one of the oldest art museums and the Ponte Vecchio is a beautiful Medieval arch bridge. A cathedral church Duomo in Milan also attracts tourists from all over the world. It is a great example of Gothic architecture. The list of Italian landmarks is endless but these are the most famous and visited ones of all.	Италия является одной из самых красивых стран в Европе. Ежегодно миллионы туристов посещают эту страну, чтобы увидеть ее достопримечательности. Столица Италии – Рим, и в этом городе, конечно, есть много интересных достопримечательностей, в том числе Колизей, Собор Святого Петра, Фонтан Треви. Тем не менее, многие итальянские достопримечательности расположены за пределами Рима, во Флоренции, Венеции, Милане, Помпеях и других городах. Одним из самых привлекательных городов Италии является Венеция. Это город на воде, который состоит из более чем 100 небольших островков. Эти острова разделены каналами, но связаны многочисленными мостами. Люди особенно любят путешествовать на водном автобусе по Большому каналу. Венеция также предлагает множество интересных достопримечательностей архитектуры, например, площадь Сан-Марко с базиликой и колокольней, Дворец дожей и прочие монументы. Венеция считается одним из самых красивых городов в мире. Еще один символ Италии – это Пизанская башня. Это высокая башня-колокольня, которая является одним из старейших сооружений в стране. Древнеримские руины можно также найти в городе Помпеи на юге Италии. Одной из самых посещаемых достопримечательностей Италии является Собор Св. Петра в Ватикане. Ватикан – необычный город. Это самый маленький город в мире, который расположен внутри города Рим. Собор Св. Петра является самой большой церковью в мире, и самым известным примером архитектуры эпохи Возрождения. Посещая Рим, люди, конечно же, идут посмотреть на Колизей. Это древний римский амфитеатр в центре города. Будучи во Флоренции, люди посещают галерею Уффици и Понте Веккио. Галерея Уффици является одной из старейших художественных музеев, а Понте Веккио – это красивый средневековый арочный мост. Кафедрального собора Дуомо в Милане также привлекает туристов со всего мира. Это отличный пример готической архитектуры. Список итальянских достопримечательностей бесконечен, но эти являются наиболее известными и посещаемыми из всех.

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