МИНОБРНАУКИ РОССИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
"Чувашский государственный университет имени И.Н. Ульянова"
(ФГБОУ ВПО "ЧГУ им. И.Н. Ульянова")
Химико-фармацевтический факультет
Кафедра иностранных языков
Контрольная работа № 3
по дисциплине: «Английский язык»
Выполнила:
студентка 2 курса
группы ЗХ-41-12
заочного отделения
Марашкина М.П
Проверила:
Ст.пр. Антонова Н.А.
МИНОБРНАУКИ РОССИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
"Чувашский государственный университет имени И.Н. Ульянова"
(ФГБОУ ВПО "ЧГУ им. И.Н. Ульянова")
Химико-фармацевтический факультет
Кафедра физическая химия
Контрольная работа № 1
по дисциплине: «Физическая и коллоидная химия»
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студентка 2 курса
группы ЗХ-41-12
заочного отделения
Марашкина М.П
Проверил:
Ст.пр. ДАНИЛОВ В. А
МИНОБРНАУКИ РОССИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
"Чувашский государственный университет имени И.Н. Ульянова"
(ФГБОУ ВПО "ЧГУ им. И.Н. Ульянова")
Химико-фармацевтический факультет
Кафедра патофизиологии, патологической анатомии с клинической
патологической анатомией и судьбой медицины
Реферат
на тему: "Гормоны передней доли гипофиза, их влияние на другие
эндокринные системы "
Выполнила:
студентка 2 курса
группы ЗХ-41-12
заочного отделения
Марашкина М.П
Проверил:
Доцент Юсов А.А
Чебоксары 2013
МИНОБРНАУКИ РОССИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
"Чувашский государственный университет имени И.Н. Ульянова"
(ФГБОУ ВПО "ЧГУ им. И.Н. Ульянова")
Химико-фармацевтический факультет
Кафедра педагогики и развития образования
Контрольная работа №1
по дисциплине: "Критерии психического и социального здоровья "
Выполнила:
студентка 2 курса
группы ЗХ-41-12
заочного отделения
Марашкина М.П
Проверила:
Кандидат Лялина Л.В
Чебоксары 2013
МИНОБРНАУКИ РОССИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
"Чувашский государственный университет имени И.Н. Ульянова"
(ФГБОУ ВПО "ЧГУ им. И.Н. Ульянова")
Химико-фармацевтический факультет
Кафедра экономическая теория и международные отношения
Контрольная работа №1
по дисциплине: "Экономическая система и ее структура"
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студентка 2 курса
группы ЗХ-41-12
заочного отделения
Марашкина М.П
Проверил:
Доцент, кандидат наук
Григорьев М.Ю
Чебоксары 2013
МИНОБРНАУКИ РОССИИ
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
"Чувашский государственный университет имени И.Н. Ульянова"
(ФГБОУ ВПО "ЧГУ им. И.Н. Ульянова")
Химико-фармацевтический факультет
Кафедра публичного права
Реферат
на тему: "Государственные органы, их признаки и классификация "
Выполнила:
студентка 2 курса
группы ЗХ-41-12
заочного отделения
Марашкина М.П
Проверил:
Ст.пр. Ядуркин И.Н.
Чебоксары 2013
studfiles.net
МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ
Российской федерациИ
Федеральное государственное образовательное учреждение
Высшего профессионального образования
«Чувашский государственный университет имени И.Н. Ульянова»
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК
ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ И ПЕРЕВОДА
Чебоксары 2010
УДК 811.011(075.8) Составитель: О.Я. Карпеева
ББК Ш12=432.1я73
Английский язык: сборник текстов для чтения и перевода / сост. О.Я. Карпеева; Чуваш. ун-т. Чебоксары, 2010. 53 с.
Содержит тексты из оригинальной литературы, посвященные теме «Компьютеры и информационные системы», а так же общетехническим знаниям, которые необходимы для уверенной ориентировки в мире информации и повышения технологических возможностей пользователя при работе с компьютером.
Для студентов факультетов информатики и вычислительной техники и для других технических факультетов.
Утверждено Методическим советом университета
Отв. редактор д-р пед. наук, профессор Н.Г. Краснов
^
What Is a Computer? A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits that operate switches or magnetize tiny metal cores. The switches, like the cores, are capable of being in one or two possible states, that is, on or off; magnetized or demagnetized. The machine is capable of storing and manipulating numbers, letters, and characters (symbols).The basic idea of a computer is that we can make the machine do what we want by inputting signals that turn certain switches on and turn others off, or magnetize or do not magnetize the cores.
The basic job of computers is processing of information. For this reason computers can be defined as devices which accept information in the form of instructions, called a program, and characters, called data, perform mathematical and / or logical operations on the information, and then supply results of these operations. The program, or part of it, which tells the computers what to do and the data, which provide the information I needed to solve the problem, are kept inside the computer in a place called memory.
It is considered that computers have many remarkable powers. However most computers, whether large or small, have three basic capabilities.
First, computers have circuits for performing arithmetic operations, such as: addition, subtraction, division, multiplication and exponentiation.
Second, computers have a means of communicating with the user. After all, if we couldn't feed information in and get results back, these machines wouldn't be of much use. Some of the most common methods of inputting information are to use terminals, diskettes, disks and magnetic tapes. The computer's input device (a disk drive or tape drive) reads the information into the computer. For outputting information two common devices are used: a printer, printing the new information on paper, and a cathode-ray-tube display, which shows the results on a TV-like screen.
Third, computers have circuits which can make decisions. The kinds of decisions which computer circuits can make are not of the type: "Who would win the war between two countries?" or "Who is the richest person in the world?" Unfortunately, the computer can only decide three things, namely: Is one number less than another? Are two numbers equal? and, Is one number greater than another? A computer can solve a series of problems and make thousands of logical decisions without becoming tired. It can find the solution to a problem in a fraction of the time it takes a human being to do the job.
A computer can replace people in dull, routine tasks, but it works according to the instructions given to it. There are times when a computer seems to operate like a mechanical 'brain', but its achievements are limited by the minds of human beings. A computer cannot do anything unless a person tells it what to do and gives it the necessary information; but because electric pulses can move at the speed of light, a computer can carry out great numbers of arithmetic-logical operations almost instantaneously. A person can do the same, but in many cases that person would be dead long before the job was finished.
^ The First Calculating Devices Let us take a look at the history of computers that we know today. The very first calculating device used was the ten fingers of a man's hands. This, in fact, is why today we still count in tens and multiples of tens.
Then the abacus was invented. People went on using some form of abacus well into the 16th century, and it is still being used in some parts of the world because it can be understood without knowing how to read.
During the 17th and 18th centuries many people tried to find easy ways of calculating. J. Napier, a Scotsman, invented a mechanical way of multiplying and dividing, which is now the modern slide rule works. Henry Briggs used Napier's ideas to produce logarithm tables which all mathematicians use today.
Calculus, another branch of mathematics, was independently invented by both Sir Isaak Newton, an Englishman, and Leibnitz, a German mathematician. The first real calculating machine appeared in 1820 as the result of several people's experiments.
In 1830 Charles Babbage, a gifted English mathematician, proposed to build a general-purpose problem-solving machine that he called "the analytical engine". This machine, which Babbage showed at the Paris Exhibition in 1855, was an attempt to cut out the human being altogether, except for providing the machine with the necessary facts about the problem to be solved. He never finished this work, but many of his ideas were the basis for building today's computers.
By the early part of the twentieth century electromechanical machines had been developed and were used for business data processing. Dr. Herman Hollerith, a young statistician from the US Census Bureau successfully tabulated the 1890 census. Hollerith invented a means of coding the data by punching holes into cards. He built one machine to punch the holes and others to tabulate the collected data. Later Hollerith left the Census Bureau and established his own tabulating machine company. Through a series of merges the company eventually became the IBM Corporation.
Storage and processing Ch.
^ Babbage's analytical engine
Until the middle of the twentieth century machines designed to manipulate punched card data were widely used for business data processing. These early electromechanical data processors were called unit record machines because each punched card contained a unit of data.
In the mid – 1940s electronic computers were developed to perform calculations for military and scientific purposes. By the end of the 1960s commercial models of these computers were widely used for both scientific computation and business data processing. Initially these computers accepted their input data from punched cards. By the late 1970s punched cards had been almost universally replaced by keyboard terminals. Since that time advances in science have led to the proliferation of computers throughout our society, and the past is but the prologue that gives us a glimpse of the future.
^ Four Generations of Computers The first vacuum tubes computers are referred to as first generation computers, and the approximate period of their use was from 1950 to 1959. UNIVAC 1 (Universal Automatic Computer) is an example of these computers which could perform thousands of calculations per second. Those devices were not only bulky, they were also unreliable. The thousands of vacuum tubes emitted large amounts of heat and burned out frequently.
The transistor, a smaller and more reliable successor to the vacuum tube, was invented in 1948. So-called second generation computers, which used large numbers of transistors, were able to reduce computational time from milliseconds to microseconds, or millionths of seconds. Second-generation computers were smaller, faster and more reliable than first-generation computers.
Advances in electronics technology continued, and microelectronics made it possible to reduce the size of transistors and integrate large numbers of circuit elements into very small chips of silicon. The computers that were designed to use integrated circuit technology were called third generation computers, and the approximate time span of these machines was from 1960 to 1979. They could perform many data processing operations in nanoseconds, which are billionths of seconds. Fourth generation computers have now arrived, and the integrated circuits that are being developed have been greatly reduced in size. This is due to microminiaturization, which means that the circuits are much smaller than before; as many as 100 tiny circuits are placed now on a single chip. A chip is a square or rectangular piece of silicon, usually from 1/10 to 1/4 inch, upon which several layers of an integrated circuit are etched or imprinted, after which the circuit is encapsulated in plastic or metal.
^ Data Processing and Data Processing Systems The necessary data are processed by a computer to become useful information. In fact this is the definition of data processing. Data are a collection of facts — unorganized but able to be organized into useful information. Processing is a series of actions or operations that convert inputs into outputs. When we speak of data processing, the input is data, and the output is useful information. So, we can define data processing as a series of actions or operations that converts data into useful information.
We use the term data processing system to include the resources that are used to accomplish the processing of data. There are four types of resources: people, materials, facilities, and equipment. People provide input to computers, operate them, and use their output. Materials, such as boxes of paper and printer ribbons, are consumed in great quantity. Facilities are required to house the computer equipment, people and materials.
^ Computer data processing system
The need for converting facts into useful information is not a phenomenon of modern life. Throughout history, and even prehistory, people have found it necessary to sort data into forms that were easier to understand. For example, the ancient Egyptians recorded the ebb and flow of the Nile River and used this information to predict yearly crop yields. Today computers convert data about land and water into recommendations to farmers on crop planting. Mechanical aids to computation were developed and improved upon in Europe, Asia, and America throughout the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. Modern computers are marvels of an electronics technology that continues to produce smaller, cheaper, and more powerful components.
^ Basic data processing operations
Five basic operations are characteristic of all data processing systems: inputting, storing, processing, outputting, and controlling. They are defined as follows.
Inputting is the process of entering data, which are collected facts, into a data processing system. Storing is saving data or information so that they are available for initial or for additional processing. Processing represents performing arithmetic or logical operations on data in order to convert them into useful information. Outputting is the process of producing useful information, such as a printed report or visual display.
Controlling is directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are performed. Data storage hierarchy
It is known that data, once entered, are organized and stored in successively more comprehensive groupings. Generally, these groupings are called a data storage hierarchy. The general groupings of any data storage hierarchy are as follows. 1) Characters, which are all written language symbols: letters, numbers, and special symbols. 2) Data elements, which are meaningful collections of related characters. Data elements are also called data items or fields. 3) Records, which are collections of related data elements. 4) Files, which are collections of related records. A set of related files is called a data base or a data bank.
^ Computer System Architecture As we know all computer systems perform the functions of inputting, storing, processing, controlling, and outputting. Now we'll get acquainted with the computer system units that perform these functions. But to begin with let's examine computer systems from the perspective of the system designer, or architect.
It should be noted that computers and their accessory equipment are designed by a computer system architect, who usually has a strong engineering background. As contrasted with the analyst, who uses a computer to solve specific problems, the computer system architect usually designs computer that can be used for many different applications in many different business. For example, the product lines of major computer manufacturers such as IBM, Digital Equipment Corporation and many others are the result of the efforts of teams of computer system architects.
Unless you are studying engineering, you don't need to become a computer system architect. However, it is important that as a potential user, applications programmer or systems analyst you understand the functions of the major units of a computer system and how they work together. Types of computers
The two basic types of computers are analog and digital. Analog computers simulate physical systems. They operate on the basis of an analogy to the process that is being studied. For example, a voltage may be used to represent other physical quantities such as speed, temperature, or pressure. The response of an analog computer is based upon the measurement of signals that vary continuously with time. Hence, analog computers are used in applications that require continuous measurement and control.
Digital computers, as contrasted with analog computers, deal with discrete rather than continuous quantities. They count rather than measure. They use numbers instead of analogous physical quantities to simulate on-going, or real-time processes. Because they are discrete events, commercial transactions are in a natural form for digital computation. This is one reason that digital computers are so widely used in business data processing.
Machines that combine both analog and digital capabilities are called hybrid computers. Many business, scientific, and industrial computer applications rely on the combination of analog and digital devices. The use of combination analog devices will continue to increase with the growth in applications of microprocessors and microcomputers. An example of this growth is the trend toward installing control systems in household appliances such as microwave ovens and sewing machines. In the future we will have complete indoor climate control systems and robots to do our housecleaning. Analog sensors will provide inputs to the control centres of these systems, which will be small digital computers.^ Hardware, Software, and Firmware The units that are visible in any computer are the physical components of a data processing system, or hardware. Thus, the input, storage, processing and control devices are hardware. Not visible is the software — the set of computer programs, procedures, and associated documentation that make possible the effective operation of the computer system. Software programs are of two types: systems software and applications software.
Systems software are the programs designed to control the operation of a computer system. They do not solve specific problems. They are written to assist people in the use of the computer system by performing tasks, such as controlling all of the operations required, to move data into and out of a computer and all of the steps in executing an application program. The person who prepares systems software is referred to as a systems programmer. Systems programmers are highly trained specialists and important members of the architectural team.
Applications software are the programs written to solve specific problems (applications), such as payroll, inventory control, and investment analysis. The word program usually refers to an application program, and the word programmer is usually a person who prepares applications software.
Often programs, particularly systems software, are stored in an area of memory not used for applications software. These protected programs are stored in an area of memory called read-only memory (ROM), which can be read from but not written on.
Firmware is a term that is commonly used to describe certain programs that are stored in ROM. Firmware often refers to a sequence of instructions (software) that is substituted for hardware. For example, in an instance where cost is more important than performance, the computer system architect might decide not to use special electronic circuits (hardware) to multiply two numbers, but instead write instructions (software) to cause the machine to accomplish the same function by repeated use of circuits already designed to perform addition.^ From the History of Computer Development In Russia As it is well known, Russian scientists made great contribution into the development of computers. Russian mathematician P. Chebyshev who lived in the 19th century was interested in calculators. Among many other mechanisms invented by him there was an arithmometer designed in 1876. It was one of the most unique calculating machines of the time. At the beginning of the 20th century Academic A.Krylov constructed a mechanical integrator for solving differential equations.
The first Soviet computer, a small-size computing machine (MESM) was tested in 1950 under Academician S.Lebedev. Next year it was put into operation. In a year MESM was followed by BESM, a large-size electronic computing machine, with 8000 operations per second.
Serial production of computers in the USSR has been started since 1953. That year U.Basilevsky headed the design and manufacture of computer STRELA. 1958 witnessed the production of M-20, computers of the first generation under the guidance of S. Lebedev. The first generation of electron tube computers was followed by the second generation of foto transistor computers, using magnetic logic elements.
Starting with 1964 semiconductor computers - Academician B.M. Glushkov URAL, BESM-4 and M-220 were produced. Under Academician Glushkov small-size computers MIR, MIR-2 and DNEPR were designed and tested at the Institute of Cybernetics.
In the late 60s together with other members of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance the Soviet Union started on the program of Unified Computer System, the program concerned with the third generation of computers with high-speed performance and program compatibility. ^ Central Processing Unit It is well known in computer science that the words 'computer' and 'processor' are used interchangeably. Speaking more precisely, 'computer' refers to the central processing unit (CPU) together with an internal memory. The internal memory, control and processing components make up the heart of the computer system. Manufactures design the CPU to control and carry out basic instructions for their particular computer.
The CPU coordinates all the activities of the various components of the computer. It determines which operations should be carried out and in what order. The CPU controls the operation of the entire system by issuing commands to other parts of the system and by acting on responses. When required it reads information from the memory, interprets instructions, performs operations on the data according to the instructions, writes the results back into the memory and moves information between memory levels or through the input-output ports.
In digital computers the CPU can be divided into two functional units called the control unit (CU) and the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU). These two units are made up of electronic circuits with millions of switches that can be in one of two states, either on or off.
The function of the CU within the central processor is to transmit coordinating control signals and commands. The control unit is that part of the computer that directs the sequence of step-by-step operations of the system, selects instructions and data from memory, interprets the program instructions, and controls the flow between main storage and the arithmetic-logical unit.
The ALU, on the other hand, is that part of the computer in which the actual arithmetic operations, namely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and exponentiation, called for in the instructions are performed.
Control unit functional diagram
Programs and the data on which the CU and the ALU operate, must be in internal memory in order to be processed. Thus, if located in secondary memory devices, such as disks or tapes, programs and data are first loaded into internal memory.^ The CPU Main Components As it is known the two functional units of the CPU are the control unit (CU) and the arithmetic-logical unit (ALU). The control unit manages and coordinates the entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in main memory, interprets the instructions, and issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute them.
The control unit operates by reading one instruction at a time from memory and taking the action called for by each instruction. In this way it controls the flow between the main storage and the arithmetic-logical unit.
The control unit has the following components: a counter that selects the instructions, one at a time, from memory; a register that temporarily holds the instructions read from memory while it is being executed; a decoder that takes the coded instruction and breaks it down into individual commands necessary to carry it out; a clock, which produces marks at regular intervals. These timing marks are electronic and very rapid.
The sequence of control unit operations is as follows. The next instruction to be executed is read out from primary storage into the storage register. The instruction is passed from the storage register to the instruction register. Then the operation part of the instruction is decoded so that the proper arithmetic or logical operation can be performed. The address of the operand is sent from the instruction register to the address register. At last the instruction counter register provides the address register with the address of the next instruction to be executed.
The arithmetic-logical unit (ALU) executes the processing operations called for by the instructions brought from main memory by the control unit. Binary arithmetic, the logical operations and some special functions are performed by the arithmetical-logical unit. .
Data enter the ALU and return to main storage through the storage register. The accumulator serving as a register holds the results of processing operations. The results of arithmetic operations are returned to the accumulator for transfer to main storage through the storage register. The comparer performs logical comparisons of the contents of the storage register and the accumulator. Typically, the comparer tests for conditions such as "less than", "equal to", or "greater than".
So as you see the primary components of the arithmetic-logical unit are banks of
bitable devices, which are called registers. Their purpose is to hold the numbers involved in the calculation and hold the results temporarily until they can be transferred to memory. At the core of the ALU is a very high-speed binary adder, which is used to carry out at least the four basic arithmetic functions (addition, subtraction, multiplication and division). The logical unit consists of electronic circuitry which compares information and makes decisions based upon the results of the comparison.^ Input Output Environment Data and instructions must enter the data processing system, and information must leave it. These operations are performed by input and output (I/O) units that link the computer to its external environment.
The I/O environment may be human-related or human-independent. A remote banking terminal is an example of a human-related input environment, and a printer is an example of a device that produces output in a human-readable format. An example of a human-independent input environment is a device that measures traffic flow. A reel of magnetic tape upon which the collected data are stored in binary format is an example of a human-independent output.
Input-Output Interfaces. Data enter input units in forms that depend upon the particular device used. For example, data are entered from a keyboard in a manner similar to typing, and this differs from the way that data are entered by a bar-code scanner. However, regardless of the forms in which they receive their inputs, all input devices must provide a computer with data that are transformed into the binary codes that the primary memory of the computer is designed to accept. This transformation is accomplished by units called I/O interfaces. Input interfaces are designed to match the unique physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the requirements of the computer system. Similarly, when output is available, output interfaces must be designed to reverse the process and to adapt the output to the external environment. These I/O interfaces are also called channels or input-output processors (IOP). The major differences between devices are the media that they use and the speed with which they are able to transfer data to or from primary storage.
Input-Output Device Speed. Input-output devices can be classified as high-speed, medium-speed, and low-speed. The devices are grouped according to their speed. It should be noted that the high-speed devices are entirely electronic in their operation or magnetic media that can be moved at high speed. Those high-speed devices are both input and output devices and are used as secondary storage. The low-speed devices are those with complex mechanical motion or operate at the speed of a human operator. The medium-speed devices are those that fall between — they tend to have mechanical moving parts which are more complex than the high-speed devices but not as complex as the low-speed.
High-speed devices: magnetic disk; magnetic tape. Medium-speed devices: card readers; line printers; page printers; computer output microfilms; magnetic diskette; optical character readers; optical mark readers; visual displays.
Low-speed devices: bar-code readers; character printers; digitizers; keyboard input devices; plotters; voice recognition and response units.^ Input Devices There are several devices used for inputting information into the computer: a keyboard, some coordinate input devices, such as manipulators (a mouse, a track ball), touch panels and graphical plotting tables, scanners, digital cameras, TV tuners, sound cards etc.
When personal computers first became popular, the most common device used to transfer information from the user to the computer was the keyboard. It enables inputting numerical and text data. A standard keyboard has 104 keys and three more ones informing about the operating mode of light indicators in the upper right corner.
Later when the more advanced graphics became to develop, user found that a keyboard did not provide the design capabilities of graphics and text representation on the display. There appeared manipulators, a mouse and a track ball, that are usually used while operating with graphical interface. Each software program uses these buttons differently.
The mouse is an optic-mechanical input device. The mouse has three or two buttons which control the cursor movement across the screen. The mouse provides the cursor control thus simplifying user's orientation on the display. The mouse's primary functions are to help the user draw, point and select images on his computer display by moving the mouse across the screen.
In general software programs require to press one or more buttons, sometimes keeping them depressed or double-click them to issue changes in commands and to draw or to erase images. When you move the mouse across a flat surface, the ball located on the bottom side of the mouse turns two rollers. One is tracking the mouse's vertical movements, the other is tracking horizontal movements. The rotating ball glides easily, giving the user good control over the textual and graphical images. In portable computers touch panels or touch pads are used instead of manipulators. Moving a finger along the surface of the touch pad is transformed into the cursor movement across the screen.
Graphical plotting tables (plotters) find application in drawing and inputtig manuscript texts. You can draw, add notes and signs to electronic documents by means of a special pen. The quality of graphical plotting tables is characterized by permitting capacity, that is the number of lines per inch, and their capability to respond to the force of pen pressing.
Scanner is used for optical inputting of images (photographies, pictures, slides) and texts and converting them into the computer form.
Digital video cameras have been spread recently. They enable getting video images and photographs directly in digital computer format. Digital cameras give possibility to get high quality photos.
Sound cards produce sound conversion from analog to digital form. They are able to synthesize sounds. Special game-ports and joysticks are widely used in computer games.^ Output Devices. Printers Printers provide information in a permanent, human-readable form. They are the most commonly used output devices and are components of almost all computer systems. Printers vary greatly in performance and design. We will classify printers as character printers, line printers and page printers in order to identify three different approaches to printing, each with a different speed range. In addition, printers can be described as either impact or nonimpact. Printers that use electromechanical mechanisms that cause hammers to strike against a ribbon and the paper are called impact printers. Nonimpact printers do not hit or impact a ribbon to print.
Character printers print only one character at a time. A typewriter is an example of a character printer. Character printers are the type used with literally all microcomputers as well as on computers of all sizes whenever the printing requirements are not large. Character printers may be of several types. A letter-quality printer is a character printer which produces output of typewriter quality. Letter-quality printers typically have speeds ranging from 10 to 50 characters per second. Dot-matrix printers form each character as a pattern of dots. These printers have a lower quality of type but are generally faster printers than the letter-quality printers — in the range of 50 to 200 characters per second. One of the newest types of character printer is the ink-jet printer. It sprays small drops of ink onto paper to form printed characters. The ink has a high iron content, which is affected by magnetic fields of the printer. These magnetic fields cause the ink to take the shape of a character as the ink approaches the paper.
Line printers are electromechanical machines used for high-volume paper output on most computer systems. Their printing speeds are such that to an observer they appear to be printing a line at a time. They are impact printers. The speeds of line printers vary from 100 to 2500 lines per minute. Line printers have been designed to use many different types of printing mechanisms. Two of the most common print mechanisms are the drum and the chain. Drum printers use a solid, cylindrical drum, rotating at a rapid speed. Speeds of drum printers vary from 200 to over 2000 lines per minute. Chain printers have their character set on a rapidly rotating chain called a print chain. Speeds of chain printers range from 400 to 2400 lines per minute. Page printers are high-speed nonimpact printers. Their printing rates are so high that output appears to emerge from the printer a page at a time. A variety of techniques are used in the design of page printers. These techniques, called electrophotographic techniques, have developed from the paper copier technology. Laser-beam printers use a combination of laser beam and electrophotographic techniques to create printer output at a rate equal to 18000 lines per minute.^ Keyboard Devices 1. There is a wide variety of keyboard devices, or terminals, available for use in entering data directly into a computer.
The visual display terminal (VDT) is the most popular type of I/O device in use today. It consists of a typewriter like keyboard for inputting and a cathode ray tube (CRT) for displaying output data. Each character entered through the keyboard is also displayed on the CRT. When keyed the data are held in a small memory, called a buffer, within the terminal itself. The data are not sent on to the computer until the operator presses an enter key on the keyboard. This allows the operator the opportunity to proofread or verify the data being entered by reading the data displayed on the screen. There are three major uses of VDT's: alphanumeric displays, graphic displays, and input through a light pen.
Alphanumeric displays. The most common use of the visual display terminal is to display alphanumeric data, that is, character data. Because of their relatively fast output rates and their ability to provide a viewer with an "instant" output, video displays have replaced printers for many applications.
Graphic displays. Visual display terminals with a graphic display capability provide a very powerful and versatile tool for many users. Graphic-display devices provide not only a means of displaying high-resolution drawings but also the capability of manipulating and modifying the graphic display. The business person can use the graphic display to present data in the form of line charts, bar charts, or pie charts. Graphic displays can be very effective in information systems for business manager.
2. Different types of keyboard devices, such as visual display terminals, teleprinter terminals, and point-of-sale devices are among the keyboard devices.
A light pen is a photosensitive penlike instrument which can sense a position on the cathode ray tube (CRT) when the end of the pen is held against the screen. The light pen is an input device. By sensing the position on the screen when you touch it by the light pen, you are inputting data to the main storage. The light pen is commonly used by engineers to modify designs.
Teleprinter terminals. There are situations where it is desirable to have a printed copy of data outputted to a terminal. If a user finds a printed copy to be required, the solution could be a teleprinter terminal. A teleprinter terminal has a keyboard for input and a type-writer like printer for output. These printers are character printers and are therefore slower output devices than CRT displays.
A point-of-sale (POS) device is the electronic equivalent of a cash register, however it is capable of capturing more data than a cash register. Most point-of-sale devices are online terminals attached to a computer for processing the transaction while the customer is making the purchase. The significant features of most of the current electronic POS devices include: the capability of entering extensive information about the sale, the guiding of the operator through the possible transactions by a series of lighted indicators or messages, a provision for transmission of the data to a central computer, and the provision for a local computational capability such as price extensions and tax calculations.Scanners Scanners provide a capability for direct data entry into the computer system. The major advantage of this direct data entry is that humans do not have to key the data. This leads to faster and more accurate data entry. The two major types of scanners are optical scanners and magnetic-ink character recognition devices. Optical scanners are input devices hat can "read" data recorded on paper. The scanning techniques used involve a light source and light sensors; thus, they are called optical devices. The data to be scanned may be typed or handwritten characters, data-coded as pencil marks, or data-coded as bars. The common optical scanner devices are called optical character readers, optical mark readers, and bar-code readers*.
An optical character reader (OCR) inputs data by using optical scanning mechanisms that can detect or scan alphabetic and numeric characters printed on paper. If the data are typewritten, they must be typed using a special type font**, called an OCR font. Examples of the use of OCR devices include the scanners used by the Postal Service to aid in sorting bulk mail, and as first-draft input for word processing system.
Optical mark readers (OMR) are able to detect pencil marks, made on special paper forms. The actual inputting of data through an OMR device involves shining a light on the page being scanned and detecting the reflections from the pencil marks. Pencil marks made with a soft lead pencil (high graphite content) will reflect the light. It is this reflection that the OMR device detects.
Optical bar-code readers detect combinations of marks or printed bars that represent the data. Bar codes have been used for a number of years for some types of credit card processing and by the post office for mail sorting. It is very common to use bar-code readers in conjunction with point-of-sale devices***. The most widely known bar code is the Universal Product Code (UPC), which now appears on almost all retail packages.
Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) devices were developed to assist the banking industry. MICR devices speed up data input for the banking industry by reading characters imprinted on paper documents using a magnetic ink (an ink that contains iron oxide particles). Check and deposit form processing is the largest application of MICR.^ Personal Computers Personal computers are supposed to appear in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competitive operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the way-side. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which is sure to remain a major player in the personal computer marketplace. In less than a decade the microcomputer has been transformed from a calculator and hobbyist's toy into a personal computer for almost everyone. What is a personal computer? How can this device be characterized?
First, a personal computer being microprocessor-based, its central processing unit, called a microprocessor unit, or MPU, is concentrated on a single silicon chip.
Second, a PC has a memory and word size that are smaller than those of minicomputers and large computers. Typical word sizes are 8 or 16 bits, and main memories range in size from 16 К to 512 K.
Third, a personal computer uses smaller, less expensive, and less powerful input, output and storage components than do large computer systems. Most often, input is by means of a keyboard, soft-copy output being displayed on a cathode-ray tube screen. Hard-copy output is produced on a low-speed character printer.
A PC employs floppy disks as the principal online and offline storage devices and also as input and output media.
Finally, a PC is a general-purpose, stand-alone system that can begin to work when plugged in and be moved from place to place.
Probably the most distinguishing feature of a personal computer is that it is used by an individual, usually in an interactive mode. Regardless of the purpose for which it is used, either for leisure activities in the home or for business applications in the office, we can consider it to be a personal computer.
^ Microcomputer System Organization 1. The organization of a microcomputer system is the same as that of a larger computer system. The microprocessor unit (MPU), usually concentrated in a single chip, consists of the control unit and the arithmetic logical unit. Internal memory is made up of random access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM). Because RAM is only temporary storage, all microcomputers require some instructions to get started after they are turned on, and these are contained in ROM. A microcomputer includes both an MPU and internal memory.
The portion of the system software that is in ROM brings into RAM the additional instructions required to operate the microcomputer. Typically these instructions are stored on a magnetic disk; hence, they are called a disk operating system, or DOS. This start-up process is called bootstrapping*. ROM also contains other programs that help to make personal computers easy to use, such as a programming language. Computer games are also stored in ROM cartridges.
In addition to the MPU, RAM, ROM, and associated control circuits, other components, called peripheral devices, are needed to make a complete microcomputer system. The principal peripheral units are: input devices, output devices, mass storage units, and communication components. Like a DOS, the programs that control the flow of data between a microcomputer and its peripheral devices are a part of systems software.
The most common input device used witlwersonal computers is the keyboard. Most personal computer keyboards have extra keys that perform special functions and that can be used to control the movement of a cursor on a screen. A leverlike device, called a joystick, is also used as an input device, commonly for playing video games.
2. The CRT (cathode-ray tube) screen used with personal computers is called a monitor. Keyboards and monitors may be part of a single unit that also contains the microcomputer and the disc drives, or they may be separate units. Besides the monitor, the most common input units are dot-matrix and letter-quality printers. Dot-matrix printers are suitable for most microcomputer applications. Letter-quality printers are usually used for high-quality office correspondence. Both types of printers are considered to be low-speed character printers.
Mass storage units are available over a range of capacities and access times. Floppy disks, or diskettes, are the most common mass storage media. They store patterns of bits on magnetically coated, flexible plastic platters. A floppy disk platter is sealed permanently in a paper jacket with a small window for reading and writing. Hard disk storage systems are also available. They may be fixed or removable. Some mass storage units contain both floppy and hard disk devices.
Low-cost modulator-demodulator devices, called modems, that allow microcomputer systems to communicate over telephone lines have become increasingly popular. Modems permit networks of personal computer owners to exchange information or to access large data banks. These data banks may be dedicated to special applications, such as law or medicine, or they may provide a variety of consumer services.^ Computer Programming. Programming is the process of preparing a set of coded instructions which enables the computer to solve specific problems or to perform specific functions. The essence of computer programming is the encoding of the program for the computer by means of algorithms. The thing is that any problem is expressed in mathematical terms, it contains formulae, equations and calculations. But the computer cannot manipulate formulae, equations and calculations. Any problem must be specially processed for the computer to understand it, that is — coded or programmed.
The phase in which the system's computer programs are written is called the development phase. The programs are lists of instructions that will be followed by the control unit of the central processing unit (CPU). The instructions of the program must be complete and in the appropriate sequence, or else the wrong answers will result. To guard against these errors in logic and to document the program's logical approach, logic plans should be developed.
There are two common techniques for planning the logic of a program. The first technique is flowcharting. A flowchart is a plan in the form of a graphic or pictorial representation that uses predefined symbols to illustrate the program logic. It is, therefore, a "picture" of the logical steps to be performed by the computer. Each of the predefined symbol shapes stands for a general operation. The symbol shape communicates the nature of the general operation, and the specifics are written within the symbol. A plastic or metal guide called a template is used to make drawing the symbols easier.
The second technique for planning program logic is called pseudocode. Pseudocode is an imitation of actual program instructions. It allows a program-like structure without the burden of programming rules to follow. Pseudocode is less time-consuming for the professional programmer than is flowcharting. It also emphasizes a top-down approach to program structure.
Pseudocode has three basic structures: sequence, decision, and looping logic. With these three structures, any required logic can be expressed.^ The Advantages and Disadvantages of Living in the Twentieth Century The advantages of living in the twentieth century are clear to anyone who spends time in one of the world's highly developed nations. The disadvantages of modern life, however, are sometimes not so quickly seen. Consider the average man today in contrast with man 200 years ago. Without doubt, man's life has been eased considerably. Machines now perform for him many of the services that he previously had to do for himself. They cut his grass, wash his car, open and close his doors, walk for him, climb stairs for him, serve him coffee, and both put him to sleep and wake him up to music. In two major areas – transportation and communications – great progress has been made. Mass publishing practices have spread newspapers, magazines, and paperback books around the globe. Relayed across oceans by Telstar satellites, television informs and entertains people in every hemisphere. Mail moves swiftly and efficiently; telephone cables connect all continents. More than any other single invention, the gasoline engine has revolutionized modern life. City streets, clogged with automobile traffic tell us that. More recent discoveries have led to the surge of jet and supersonic plane travel. Even as man darts throughout the world, he is protected from disease as no man before him has been, and he can look forward to living a longer life than his grandfather did. Furthermore, man now commands a more plentiful supply of the world's goods. He may own not only a car and a home but also a stove, a refrigerator, a washing machine, books, phonograph records and cameras. Even his old age is better provided for through pension and retirement plans offered by the government and by industry. Thus the advantages of living in the twentieth century are many.
In contrast, one finds that progress can also have its drawbacks. It is true that today man moves more swiftly through the world. But in doing so, he often loses track of the roots and traditions that give substance and meaning to life. Nor does the fact that he is better informed through television, radio, newspapers, and books necessarily mean that he is wiser than men of earlier generations. Instead, the ease with which the written and spoken word are produced today sometimes seems to lead to superficiality of thought. Although man has been given the gift of leisure and a longer life, he has become more restless and is often uncomfortable when he is not working. Flooded with goods and gadgets, he finds his appetite for material things increased, not satisfied. Man invented machines to replace his servants. But some current observers feel that man is in danger of becoming the servant of his machines. Mass production lowered the cost of many products, but as prices went down, quality also often decreased. Another distressing aspect of modem life is its depersonalization. In many offices, automation is beginning to replace human workers. Some colleges identify students not by their names, hut by their IBM numbers. Computers are winning the prestige that philosophers had in an earlier age. The frenzied pace in many cities is another of the less attractive byproducts of an industrial society. Soon, man may even fall victim to the subtle loss of privacy that threatens him. Even today, he can be watched on closed circuit television screens as he walks in stores and hotels. He may be tracked by radar while driving on the highway or listened to by means of a microphone concealed in his heating system. He might even be sharing his telephone conversation with an unknown auditor. Certainly many problems face men living in the most technologically advanced era in history. As old enemies have been overcome, new enemies come into view, just like the old ones. Yet if modern man remains the master of his own fate, he can still fashion a satisfying life in this fast-moving century.^ Alfred Nobel – a Man of Contrast Alfred Nobel, the great Swedish inventor and industrialist, was a man of many contrasts. He was the son of a bankrupt, but became a millionaire, a scientist who cared for literature, an industrialist who managed to remain an idealist. He made a fortune but lived a simple life, and although cheerful in company he was often sad when remained alone. A lover of mankind, he never had a wife or family to love him, a patriotic son of his native land, he died alone in a foreign country. He invented a new explosive, dynamite, to improve the peacetime industries of mining and road building, but saw it used as a weapon of war to kill and injure people. During his useful life he often felt he was useless. World-famous for his works, he was never expected any reward for what he had done. He once said that he did not see that he had deserved any fame and that he had no taste for it. However, since his death, his name has brought fame and glory to others.
He was born in Stockholm on October 21, 1833 but moved to Russia with his parents in 1842, where his father, Emmanuel, made a strong position for himself in the engineering industry. Emmanuel Nobel invented the landmine and got plenty of money for it from government orders during the Crimean War, but then, quite suddenly went bankrupt.
Most of the family went back to Sweden in 1859. Four years later Alfred returned there too, beginning his own study of explosives in his father's laboratory. It so occurred that he had never been to school or University but had studied privately and by the time he was twenty was a skilful chemist and excellent linguist having mastered Swedish, Russian, German, French and English. Like his father, Alfred Nobel was imaginative and inventive, but he had better luck in business and showed more financial sense. He was quick to see industrial openings for his scientific inventions and built up over 80 companies in 20 different countries. Indeed his greatness lay in his outstanding ability to combine the qualities of an original scientist with those of a forward-looking industrialist.
But Nobel was never really concerned about making money or even making scientific discoveries. Seldom happy, he was always searching for a meaning to life, and from his youth had taken a serious interest in literature and philosophy. Probably because he could not find ordinary human love - he never married - he began to care deeply about the whole mankind. He took every opportunity to help the poor: he used to say that he would rather take care of the stomachs of the living than glory of the dead in the form of stone memorials. His greatest wish, however, was to see an end to wars, and thus peace between nations, and he spent much time and money working for the cause until his death in Italy in 1896. His famous will, in which he left money to provide prizes for outstanding work in physics, chemistry, physiology, medicine, economics, literature and promotion of world peace is a memorial to his interests and ideals. And so the man who often believed that he was useless and had done little to justify his life is remembered and respected long after his death. Nobel's ideals which he expressed long before the threat of nuclear war have become the ideals of all progressive people of the world.
According to Nobel's will the capital was to be safely invested to form a fund. The interest on this fund is to be distributed annually in the form of prizes to those who, during the previous year did work of the greatest use to mankind within the field of physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, economics, literature and to the person who has done the most for brotherhood between nations, for the abolition or reduction of permanent armies and for the organization and encouragement of peace conferences.
In his will Nobel wrote that it was his firm wish that in choosing the prize winner no consideration should be given to the nationality of the candidates, but that the most worthy should receive the prize, whether he be a Scandinavian or not. This will was written in Paris, on November 27, 1895.
Since Nobel's death many outstanding scientists, writers and public figures from different countries have become Nobel Prize winners.^ Computer Uses from A to Z Once upon a time there were no computers. The world was a lot different. All sorts of things were not possible. There were no video games, CD-ROM players, modern TV, grocery store scanners, fast phone connections or space probes.
Right after World War II, engineers built the first digital all electronic computers. The information Age began. Computers linked to TV, telephone and satellite networks spread information throughout the world.
Before computers, most people made a living by making and selling goods and farm products. Today, more and more people are earning their living using computers. Many are producing and selling information.
Here are some examples of the many ways we use computers today:
AUTOMOBILES - Cars use computers to control the flow of gas to the engine. This gives better gas mileage. Also, many cars have computers that control displays such as the temperature, speed and. gas gauges.
BANKS - Computers in banks can transfer money from one account to another.
CARTOONS - Computers can be used to organize thousands of single pictures used to make cartoons.
DRAWINGS - Computers can be used to create drawings for engineering or designing.
EXERCISE MACHINES - Some exercise machines use computers to calculate miles or calories.
FAX MACHINES - Computers in fax machines are used to send and print the signal from machine to machine.
GAMES - Some games such as chess can be played with the help from a computer. The computer can analyze and decide which move would be the best. Other games played with computers are very popular.
HOSPITALS - A hospital patient's heart (pulse) rate can be recorded and analyzed by a computer.
INDUSTRIAL ROBOTS - Some companies use computer-controlled robots to do such things as weld parts, work on assembly lines and deliver parts.
JET PLANES - Computers help guide planes by giving pilots important information such as speed and altitude.
KITCHEN APPLIANCES - Microwaves, for instance, use computers to set the time and temperature.
LIBRARIES - Books and other materials are checked out by using computers. Each book has a bar code. When it is checked out, it is placed under a laser reader. The laser reader, controlled by a computer, records the title of the book. In addition, most libraries have a listing of their books and other materials on computers so you can find out what is available.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS - Many performers use computer-controlled machines such as electronic drum kits to create special sounds.
NEWSPAPERS - Reporters write their stories on the computer. Photographers and editors edit pictures and stories on the computer.
OLYMPIC ATHLETES - Athletes use computers to help with their training. For example, computers can measure how well an athlete's lungs are working.
PAY TELEPHONES - A computer at a central location figures out how much a call will cost. Computers connect your call to the correct number.
QUAKES - Computers are used to help predict earthquakes.
RESTAURANTS - A restaurant manager can use a computer to keep track of food orders and supplies.
SPORTS - Computers are used to record times and scores at games.
TELEVISION - Computers are used to control much in television. Using data produced by computers, networks can make their decisions about what shows stay on the air.
UNDERGROUND GAS RESERVES - Scientists use computers to help create models of underground gas reserves. This helps keep up with the supply.
VIDEOCASSETTE RECORDERS - Computers change magnetic pulses on the tape into electronic signals that then turn into pictures you see on your TV.
WASHING MACHINES - A tiny computer chip (microchip) controls your washing machine (washer).
X-RAY SCANNERS - Detailed pictures of the inside of the body can be taken from different angles. Computers are also used to sort, process and show pictures.
YACHTS - Captains use computers to help navigate courses for their yachts.
ZOOS - Zoos use computers to help keep track of animals used for breeding purposes.
GLOSSARY:
network - here a group of radio or television stations in different places using many of the same broadcasts
mileage - the distance that is traveled, measured in miles
gauge - instrument for measuring
weld - to join by heating and fusing (melting)
deliver - here take to a place
kit - set of equipment
edit - prepare smth. for printing or showing
keep/lose track (of) - to keep/not keep oneself informed about a person, state of affairs, etc.
on the right/wrong track - thinking or working correctly/incorrectly microchip - a tiny set of connected electrical parts produced as a single unit on a
slice of material such as silicon
process - to put information (data) into a computer for examination to produce
young^ Computer Viruses
A bit of history
On the 2nd of November, 1988 Robert Morris, a graduate student of computer science faculty of Cornwall University (USA) infected a great amount of computers, connected to the Internet network. This network unites machines of university centres, private companies and governmental agents, including National Aeronautics Space Administration, as well as some military scientific centres and labs.
On the 4th of November the author of the virus - Morris - came to FBI headquarters in Washington on his own. FBI has imposed a prohibition on all material relating to the Morris virus.
On the 22nd of January, 1989 a court of jurors has acknowledged Morris guilty. If the denunciatory verdict had been approved without modification, Morris would have been sentenced to 5 years of prison and 250 000 dollars of fine. However Morris' attorney immediately lodged a protest and directed all papers to the Circuit Court with the petition to decline the decision of court. Finally Morris was sentenced to 3 months of prisons and fine of 270 thousand dollars, but in addition Cornwall University carried a heavy loss, having excluded Morris from its members. Author then had to take part in liquidation of its own creation.
^ What is a computer virus?
It is an executable code able to reproduce itself. Viruses are an area of pure programming, and, unlike other computer programs, carry intellectual functions on protection from being found and destroyed. They have to fight for survival in complex conditions of conflicting computer systems. That's why they evolve as if they were alive.
Yes, viruses seem to be the only alive organisms in the computer environment, and yet another their main goal is survival. That is why they may have complex crypting/decrypting engines, which is indeed a sort of a standard for computer viruses nowadays, in order to carry out processes of duplicating, adaptation and disguise.
It is necessary to differentiate between reproducing programs and Trojan horses. Reproducing programs will not necessarily harm your system because they are aimed at producing as many copies of their own as possible by means of so-called agent programs or without their help. They are referred to as "worms".
Meanwhile Trojan horses are programs aimed at causing harm or damage to PC's.
Destructive actions are not an integral part of the virus by default. However virus-writers allow presence of destructive mechanisms as an active protection from finding and destroying their creatures, as well as a response to the attitude of society to viruses and their authors.
As you see, there are different types of viruses, and they have already been separated into classes and categories. For instance: dangerous, harmless, and very dangerous. No destruction means a harmless one, tricks with system halts means a dangerous one, and finally devastating destruction means a very dangerous virus.
But viruses are famous not only for their destructive actions, but also for their special effects, which are almost impossible to classify. Some virus-writers suggest the following: funny, very funny and sad or melancholy (keeps silence and infects). But one should remember that special effects must occur only after a certain number of contaminations. Users should also be given a chance to restrict execution of destructive actions, such as deleting files, formatting hard disks. Thereby a virus can be considered to be a useful program, keeping a check on system changes and preventing any surprises such as deletion of files or wiping out hard disks.
It sounds quite unusual to say such words about viruses, which are usually considered to he a disaster. The less a person understands in programming and virology, the greater influence will have on him the possibility of being infected with a virus. Thus, let's consider creators of viruses as the best source.
^ Who writes computer viruses?
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Факультет журналистики ЧГУ им. И. Н. Ульянова - образовательное структурное подразделение Чувашского государственного университета им. И. Н. Ульянова, обеспечивающее подготовку студентов по специальности «Журналистика» для средств массовой информации Чувашской Республики и чувашской диаспоры. В Чувашском государственном университете имени И.Н.Ульянова журналисты готовятся на двух отделениях (отделение чувашской журналистики и отделение русской журналистики) по очной форме обучения.
Факультет осуществляет свою деятельность в соответствии с Положением о факультете журналистики и с Уставом Чувашского государственного университета им. И. Н. Ульянова. Декан факультета заслуженный работник культуры Чувашской Республики, член Союза журналистов и Союза писателей России, профессор А. П. Данилов.
В структуру факультета журналистики входят 3 кафедры:
кафедра средств массовой информации и публицистики заведующий – член Союза журналистов, Союза писателей России, заслуженный работник культуры Чувашской Республики, кандидат исторических наук, профессор А.П. Данилов, численность профессорско-преподавательского состава - 12 штатных единиц;
кафедра литературного редактирования и стилистики заведующий - член Союза журналистов, Союза писателей России, заслуженный работник культуры Чувашской Республики, кандидат исторических наук профессор И.Я. Тенюшев, численность профессорско-преподавательского состава - 7 штатных единиц;
кафедра электронных средств массовой информации и рекламы заведующий – доктор филологических наук профессор Л.А. Будниченко, численность профессорско-преподавательского состава – 6,5 штатных единиц.
В Чувашском госуниверситете специальность 021400 — «Журналистика» была открыта в 1994 году. До открытия этой специальности журналистские кадры для Чувашской Республики и для чувашской диаспоры готовились на факультете чувашской филологии и культуры на базе специальности «Чувашский язык и литература». Здесь с 1968 по 1994 годы велась специализация по журналистике и за этот период подготовлено около 300 журналистов с филологическим образованием.
Первый выпуск студентов по специальности «Журналистика» состоялся в 1999 году. В этот год получили диплом о высшем образовании с присуждением квалификации «журналист» 25 выпускников. В 2000 году число выпуска увеличилось и составило 47. В 2005 году был 51 выпускник, из которых 17 получили диплом с отличием. Сегодня на факультете учатся студенты не только из Чувашской Республики, но и из 22 регионов Российской Федерации: из Республик Татарстан, Башкортостан, Саха (Якутия), Марий Эл, Коми, Чукотский АО, из Ульяновской, Иркутской, Тюменской, Пензенской, Кировской, Самарской областей, из городов Тольятти, Сургут, Воркута, Воронеж и т.д. Кроме того, обучаются и представители зарубежных стран - студенты из Турецкой Республики и Республики Кения.
Органом управления факультета журналистики является Ученый Совет факультета, состоящий из 13 членов. В настоящее время его возглавляет декан факультета А. П. Данилов. Ученый секретарь — В. П. Павлов.
Администрация факультета:
В структуру факультета журналистики входят 3 кафедры:
На 1, 2, 3, 4 курсах студенты выполняют курсовые работы. 10 семестр полностью отводится на работу над дипломным сочинением.
Расширению профессионального диапазона студентов-журналистов, совершенствованию практических навыков и умений способствует учебно-производственная и непрерывная практика, которая проводится в соответствии с «Положением о производственной практике» в редакциях районных и республиканских газет и журналов, радио и телевидении, в рекламных агентствах. У факультета имеются договора с редакциями республиканских средств массовой информации о сотрудничестве. В соответствии с этими договорами открыты творческие студии в редакциях газет «Хыпар», «Хресчен сасси», «Ульяновец», «Советская Чувашия», «Чебоксарские новости», «МК в Чебоксарах», в редакциях журналов «Тёван Атёл»: «Ялав», ГТРК «Чувашия» , «Канал 5+», в редакционно-издательском отделе ЧГУ. Активно используется факультетом материальная база этих редакций. По учебному плану предусмотрена работа в творческих студиях уже на втором семестре до 8 семестра включительно. Для этой работы по расписанию отводится один учебный день.
Материально-техническая база факультета представлена:
wreferat.baza-referat.ru
Студентам любого ВУЗа при написании курсовой работы без знания и выполнения требований к ее оформлению по ГОСТ просто не обойтись. В противном случае риск недопуска к защите высок. Задачу - самостоятельно написать отличный курсовик - поможет решить подборка наших статей, и вам не придется тратить время и силы на поиск необходимых рекомендаций и стандартов.
При изучении структуры курсовой работы не стоит изобретать велосипед. Обязательное требование любой кафедры в любом ВУЗе - трехчастная структура (введение, основная часть, заключение), а также список использованной литературы. В основе каждой из частей лежит определенный алгоритм, изучив который, вы сможете самостоятельно написать отличный курсовик.
Кто хоть раз писал курсовую работу, знает: стандартов оформления такое множество, что легче написать сам текст, чем разобраться в нескончаемых томах норм и требований. ГОСТы есть ко всему: титульному листу, сноскам, списку литературы, и…можно продолжать бесконечно. Наша подборка статей гарантирует правильное написание и оформление вашего курсовика согласно ГОСТам на все 100%.
Вы тоже о нормоконтроле задумались тогда, когда ваша курсовая работа уже написана? И вашему разочарованию нет предела, так как курсовик вернули на доработку: рисунки оформлены не по ГОСТ, сноски неверные, а про список использованной литературы вообще молчите? Хотите пройти нормоконтроль с первого раза, тогда подборка предлагаемых статей для вас.
Не секрет, что защита курсовой играет немаловажную роль в итоговой оценке всей работы, поэтому к ней нужно готовиться, а не пускать все на самотек. Грамотный доклад, презентация к нему и раздаточный материал - залог вашей успешности. Предлагаемые статьи помогут вам справиться с трудностями написания речи и подготовиться к самой защите.
Один и то же вопрос можно услышать от всех студентов на занятии, посвященном рекомендациям по написанию курсовой работы - «А где взять пример? Образец дадите?». Пример всегда убедительнее теории. Не знаете, где посмотреть пример оформления сносок и примечаний? Нужен образец включения таблиц и рисунков в текст курсовой работв? Все образцы и примеры дадим вам мы.
Не требует доказательств тот факт, что без выполнения тех или иных инструкций написать отличную курсовую работу просто нереально. Если читать и изучать методические статьи о том, как правильно писать курсовую и какие существуют требования к его оформлению, у вас нет ни сил, ни желания, ни времени, то подборка наших видеоинструкций – реальная помощь именно вам.
Курсовая работа не выпускная, но получить за нее высокую оценку мечтает любой студент. Однако часты случаи, когда помешать этому может какая-нибудь мелочь, типа: много читал с листа или на защиту пришел преподаватель, недолюбливающий вас. Подборка статей только с полезной для вас информацией поможет учесть все мелочи и написать курсовую без лишних проблем.
Написали курсовую работу самостоятельно? Потратили на ее создание немало сил и времени? Даже изучили ГОСТы и технические нормы? А итог – уникальность ниже требуемой в ВУЗе?! Не вешать нос! Если о том, сколько уникальности должно быть в дипломе, вы задумались только сейчас, а не заранее, то все можно еще поправить, прочитав ряд наших советов и рекомендаций.
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